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UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS, 

LAWRENCE. 



BULLETIN 

OF THE 

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY. 



ALFALFA, GRASSHOPPERS, BEES: 

THEIR RELATIONSHIP. 




BY 



S. J. HUNTER. 






LIBRARY 



UNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 



Class 
Book 



UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS, 
LAWRENCE. 



Alfalfa. Gmsshoppess, Bees: 

THEIR RELATIONSHIP. 



A REPORT OF THE FIELD-WORK OF THE 

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY. 

SUMMER OF 1898. 




Contribution from Entomological Laboratory 

No. 65. 
Bv S. J HUNTER. 



PRESS OF THE STATE PRINTER: 

TOPEKA, KANSAS. 

January 1899. 






DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY, 
UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS. 



F. H. SNOW, Ph. D., 

Professor. 

S. J. HUNTER, A. M., 
Assistant Professor. 

HUGO KAHL, 

Curator and Systematic Entomologist. 

MISS ELLA WEEKS, 
Artist. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

Acknowledgments xi 

Preface 1 

PART I. — Alfalfa and Grasshoppers. 

Introduction 5 

Grasshoppers in General 9 

Native Grasshoppers in Kansas 11 

Edwards county 12 

Ford county 13 

Finney county 13 

Hamilton county 14 

Greeley county 15 

Wallace county 16 

Logan county 16 

Thomas county 16 

Sherman county 16 

Decatur county 18 

Norton county 18 

Species of Grasshoppers Prevalent 19 

Life-History of the Differential Locust 20 

Embryology , 20 

Description of the egg 20 

Method of oviposition 21 

Where the eggs are laid 23 

Molting . 27 

Habits 28 

Food 28 

Actions 28 

Borders of the field stripped 28 

Length of flight 29 

Habitat 29 

Natural enemies 29 

Vertebrate 29 

Birds 30 

Blacksnakes 30 

Invertebrate 31 

Locust mite 31 

Beetles 31 

Flies '. 31 

Parasitic influences on Melanoplus 32 

Sareophaga cimbicis. ... 33 

Sarcophaga hunteri 34 

Locust fungus 37 

Observations upon the Differential Locust made in widely separated 

localities 38 



VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Grasshoppers in General — Continued: 

Anatomy of the Differential Locust 39 

External anatomy 39 

The head 40 

The thorax ' 41 

Appendages of the thora x 42 

The abdomen 43 

Internal anatomy 44 

Digestive system 44 

Circulatory system 45 

Respiratory system 46 

Reproductive system 47 

Nervous system 47 

Measures of Prevention 48 

Alfalfa culture 51 

The Hopper-Dozer 55 

Spraying 60 

Summary 60 

Grasshopper Law 61 

Bibliography of Differential Locust 62 

Technical description of the Differential Locust 63 

PART II.— Alfalfa and Bees. 

Introduction 67 

Varieties of Bees 68 

German 69 

Carniolan 69 

Italian 71 

Cyprian 71 

Social Economy of the Hive 72 

The queen 72 

The drone 73 

The worker 73 

Bee Products 74 

Bee-bread 74 

Propolis 74 

Royal jelly 74 

Silk 75 

Wax 75 

Honey 75 

Analyses of various kinds of honey 79 

Comb building 79 

The sting 80 

Method of fertilization of the alfalfa blossom 81 

Influence of bees upon the seed crop 82 

Comparative tables 84 

Alfalfa as a honey plant 84 

Comparative tables showing alfalfa acreage, stands of bees, pounds of 

honey 86 

Observations gathered from Kansas Apiarists 88 

Some hive yields 98 

Record of colony of bees feeding for the year almost exclusively upon alfalfa, 100 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. Vll 

One Year Among the Bees 102 

What constitutes a colony of bees 102 

Early spring management 103 

Stimulative feeding 105 

The bee veil and smoker 106 

The honey season 107 

Hives and appliances 109 

The Parker foundation fastener Ill 

Super for holding the sections 112 

The section-holder super 113 

Section boxes, shipping crates, etc 114 

Hives complete 114 

The extractor 116 

Extracting honey 118 

Hiving swarms 119 

Putting hives together 121 

Queen-cells and queen rearing 122 

Frames of comb foundation 121 

Feeding bees 125 

House apiaries 126 

Opening hives and handling bees 129 

Reversing the comb 131 

Close of the honey season 131 

Cellar wintering 133 

Chaff hives and outdoor wintering 131 

Chaff hive complete 135 

Colony of bees ready for shipment 135 

Introducing queens 136 

Winter care of bees 137 

Dividing bees for increase 137 

Diseases and Enemies of Bees 139 

Foul-brood * 139 

The wax moth 141 

Ants, wasps, spiders 141 

Principal Honey- and Pollen-Producing Plants of Kansas 142 

Books and Journals relating to Apiculture 144 



Viii ILLUSTRATIONS. 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PLATES IN PART I. PAGE. 

I. Second crop of alfalfa on land disked the previous March. . .Frontispiece. 
II. Melanoplus differentia lis, female ovipositing, with section of ground 

exposing egg-pods, in situ 22 

III. Egg- pods of Melanoplus differentialis 24 

IV. Various stages of last molt of Melanoplus differentialis 26 

V. First crop of alfalfa on land disked the previous March 50 

VI. First crop of alfalfa on land disked the previous March ( in windrow 

and swath ) 54 

VII. Hopper-dozer at work in alfalfa 56 

VIII. Hopper-dozer at work in Kafir corn 58 

FIGURES IN PART I. 

1. Melanoplus differentialis, female 19 

2. Melanoplus differentialis, male 19 

3. Eggs of Melanoplus differentialis 20 

4. Irregular hexagonal pattern of the chorion of egg of Melanoplus dif- 

ferentialis 21 

5. Locust mite, Trombidium locustarum, on membrane of locust wing.. . 31 

6. Different stages in the metamorphosis of Sarcophagidas 33 

7. Sareophaga cimbicis, female 34 

8. Sareophaga hunteri, male 34 

9. Thorax of Sareophaga hunteri 36 

10. Erax cinerascens 37 

11. Melanoplus differentialis killed by fungus 38 

12. Front view of head of Melanoplus differentialis with clypeus and la- 

brum removed 40 

13. Front view of head of Melanoplus differentialis with mandibles 

spread out r 10 

14. Labium of Melanoplus differentialis 11 

15. Inner view of maxilla of Melanoplus differentialis 41 

16. Clypeus and labrum of Melanoplus differentialis 40 

16i. Side view of prothorax with leg of Melanoplus differentialis 41 

17. Side view of thorax of Melanoplus differentialis 11 

18. Metathoracic leg of Melanoplus differentialis 42 

19. Dorsal aspect of body of female Melanoplus differentialis 43 

20. Ventral view of thorax of Melanoplus differentialis 44 

21. Side view of abdomen of female Melanoplus differentialis 44 

22. Side view of abdomen of male Melanoplus differentialis 44 

23. Dorsal view of caudal appendages of male Melanoplus differentialis, 44 

24. Exterior view of auditory organ of Melanoplus differentialis 45 

25. Digestive, circulatory and nervous systems of Melanoplus differen- 

tialis 45 

26. Respiratory system of Melanoplus differentialis 46 

27. Side view, showing spiracles of mesothorax of Melanoplus differen- 

tialis 47 

28. Reproductive system of female of Melanoplus differentialis 47 

29. Plan of construction of hopper-dozer 57 

30. View in front of hopper-dozer, showing quantities of grasshoppers just 

taken from the pans 59 



ILLUSTRATIONS. IX 
PLATES IN PART II. 

I. Some Kansas Apiaries Frontispiece. 

II. Varieties of bees 70 

III. Digestive system of bee 76 

IV. Shades of color in various kinds of honey 78 

FIGURES IN PART II. 

1. Secretion of wax scales 75 

2. The sting of the worker bee and its appendages 80 

3. Pollination of alfalfa blossom by bee 81 

4. Cluster of alfalfa with bee feeding 83 

5. Honey-bee on alfalfa . 90 

6. Honey-bee on white clover 93 

7. Honey-bee on sweet clover 96 

8. Bee veil and smoker 107 

9. Hives and appliances for honey production 109 

10. Parker foundation fastener Ill 

11. Super for holding the sections 113 

12. Section-holder super 114 

13. Section boxes, shipping crate, etc 115 

11. Hives complete 115 

15. Extractor with inside gearing raised and exposed to view 117 

16. Extracting honey 118 

17. Hiving swarms 120 

18. Putting hives together 122 

19. Queen-cells and queen rearing 123 

20. Frames of comb foundation 125 

21. Feeding bees 126 

22. House apiaries 127 

23. Opening hives and handling bees 130 

21. Reversing the comb 131 

25. Outside view of house apiary 132 

26. Cellar wintering 133 

27. Chaff hives and outdoor wintering 134 

28. Chaff hive complete 135 

29. Colony of bees ready for shipment 136 



ACKOWLEDGMENTS. 



Referring to Part I, my thanks are due Mr. C. E. McClung, of the 
Department of Zoology, for the sketch from which figure 4 was made 
and for the paragraphs upon the egg of Melanoplus differentialis. 
Plates I, V, VI, VIII and figure 1 are from photographs taken by the 
author for this publication. Plate VII and figure 30 are produced 
from photographs by Mr. Earl Cass, under direction. Figures 2 and 
3 are from photographs made to be here used by Mr. F. E. Marcy. 
Figure 11 is from a photograph taken by Mr. E. S. Tucker in this 
laboratory. All the other plates and figures are produced from original 
drawings made by Miss Ella Weeks, under the author's direction. In 
the execution of this work the zeal and fidelity of the artist is worthy 
of special mention. 

In will be noted from the above that all the illustrations in Part I, 
both text and plate, have been prepared expressly for this volume 
from original subject-matter. 

Referring to Part II, I am indebted to Prof. W. C. Stevens, of the 
Department of Botany, for directing the work of the artist, Miss Weeks, 
in the preparation of figures 3 and I, and for the use of the photo- 
graph, taken by himself, from which figure 7 was made. Plate I is 
made from four photographs. Plate II is produced from original 
drawings made by Miss Weeks, under direction. Plate III is from a 
drawing made after Cheshire. Plate IV — figures 5 and () are from 
photographs made by Mr. F. E. Marcy, under the immediate direction 
of the author. Figures 1 and 2 show in the explanations where taken 
from ; they were kindly loaned by Clias. Dadant & Son. Figures 8 to 
29, inclusive, are from photographs taken under the author's direction 
and with the cooperation of Mr. A. H. Duff. There should have ap- 
peared in the explanation after each figure the word "(Original)." 

With the exception of plate III and figures 1 and 2, the illustrations 
were especially prepared for this publication from original drawings 

and photographs. 

(xi) 



PREFACE. 



1 F the products of the season's labor are damaged by an insect foe, 
the cause of its appearance can be ascertained and means of pre- 
vention made prominent factors in subsequent calculations. While 
the insect tribe contains some foes, it has among its members many 
insect friends. The grain producer and fruit-grower will do well to 
cultivate their acquaintance. 

It is with the desire that intelligent action may be directed against 
one of our aggressive herbiverous insects, and a more intimate ac- 
quaintance formed with our melliferous insect friend, that this publi- 
cation is sent forth. Paradoxical as it may seem, the former insect 
when properly dealt with proves a blessing in disguise. The latter 
calls upon the alfalfa blossom for its nectar to enrich our table, and 
by its visit increases the seed crop twofold. 

It is expected that experiments begun one year ago and continued 
this summer will be carried on during the coming season, and infor- 
mation upon operation and results will be given at a later date to 
those interested. 

In the preparation of this work I am indebted to Chancellor F. H. 
Sxow and Dr. 8. W. Williston for valuable suggestions. 

During the field-work, a report of which this is, an expression of 
my appreciation is due Supts. G. W. Watson and J. H. Smart, of 
the firm of Ball & Goddard, Kinsley, and Co. Treas. C. H. Hum- 
phrey and Hon. Thomas H. Ford, of Syracuse, for valuable assistance. 

In behalf of this department, grateful acknowledgment is made to 
the Atchison. Topeka & Santa Fe, Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, 
Union Pacific and Missouri Pacific Railway Companies for material 
cooperation. 



Part I. 
ALFALFA AND ORASSHOPPEES. 



INTRODUCTION. 



HPHE culture of alfalfa lias reached such proportions in Kansas 
that those directly interested are devoting their energies toward 
making the returns as large as possible. Farmers in some parts of 
this state are counting their alfalfa fields by the section plats. 
Whenever such areas are devoted to one particular plant the course 
of natural events is changed. Nature intends that there shall be an 
equal distribution of plant life and animal life. Wherever one plant 
predominates those forms of animal life which thrive best upon it as 
a food-plant increase in undue proportion. This has been the case 
with the chinch-bug and wheat, the corn-root worm and corn ; each 
have thriven amidst superabundance of their favorite food- plant. 

That the relation between alfalfa and insect life might be more 
fully understood, the writer was called upon to visit Edwards county 
last fall. He then made note of the conditions, and published, in 
connection with Professor Snow, a report giving methods of cultiva- 
tion that would eliminate objectionable insects from alfalfa lands. 
He was asked to continue these studies at the beginning of this 
year again, and, with the proffered cooperation of those interested, 
to conduct such investigations and experiments as he saw fit in the 
alfalfa regions. In acceptance of that request, believing that the best 
laboratory was the field, the writer went into camp fifteen miles 
southwest of Kinsley, on the line between Edwards and Ford counties, 
with tent and full laboratory equipments, prepared to study the 
entomological conditions of that region with special reference to the 
alfalfa plant. 

My first work might be termed a general survey of the territory 
adjoining the camp. Accordingly, in company with Supt. J. H. 
Smart, I drove over the alfalfa-producing region of Edwards and Ford 
counties, and obtained a general knowledge of the situation. I was 
soon struck with the prevalence of one species of grasshopper, and 
also the possibilities of bee-keeping in this region, an injurious and a 
beneficial phase of entomological research. To these two subjects I 
determined to devote my undivided attention, to the exclusion of all 
others. 

While at work here invitations came to visit Finney and Hamilton 
counties, where grasshoppers were making inroads upon the growing 

(5) 



6 INTRODUCTION. 

crops. Accordingly, upon the 18th of July I reached Syracuse, in 
Hamilton county, and visited agricultural regions where grasshoppers 
were at work. Upon the 20th and 21st I investigated affected fields 
on the north, east and west of Garden City. I returned to my camp 
upon the 22d. Being convinced that the damage by the grasshop- 
pers was due to the prevalence of one species, I concluded to devote 
my attention to the life-history and habits of this one. Accordingly, 
observations were largely confined to this one species. The camp 
w r as maintained in Edwards county until this form had reached the 
adult stage, when, having already received reports of flights of grass- 
hoppers on the western line of the state, and also of the prevalence 
of grasshoppers in certain localities, I determined to make a survey 
of all this region, to ascertain the numbers present and causes govern- 
ing their presence, and also to visit the beekeepers of this region and 
make such observations upon the actions of their bees toward alfalfa 
as might seem practicable. 

Accordingly I left camp for Syracuse, and from Syracuse by team 
drove north through Hamilton, Greeley and Wallace counties to Sharon 
Springs; from Sharon Springs by rail to Oakley, where conditions 
were noted, and from Oakley by slow train to Colby. Conditions 
were again noted from Colby to Goodland. Reports had reached me 
from this point of the prevalence of grasshoppers on the tracks. 
Here, I made special examinations of the cow-catchers of engines 
entering the roundhouse to ascertain the species of grasshoppers 
caught along the track. Upon leaving Goodland I was given the op- 
portunity to occupy a favorable position where flights of grasshop- 
pers rising in front of the engine could be easily noted. This 
observation was continued as far as Norton. At Norton, the agri- 
cultural regions were visited, and the existing state of affairs noted. 
This survey covered eleven of the twenty-four counties west of the 
100th meridian, and two east of this meridian. 

The pages which follow contain the practical results of the obser- 
vations made, extending over a period from July 5 to September 4, 
as well as a fully illustrated summary of the experiments conducted 
with the cooperation of the farmers during the past year. The hearty 
manner with which all interested have entered into this work, and the 
many opinions expressed concerning the favorable results, cause me 
to believe that the work has not been in vain. Since my return 
numerous inquiries have been received, examples of which are here- 
with given : 

Vera, Kan., August 27, 1898. 

My Dear Sir: I read with much interest the article in the Kansas City Star 
of August 19, 1898, about your experimenting with alfalfa by disk harrowing, 
etc. I have quite an acreage of alfalfa that has not done very well this year ow- 
ing to the wet weather, with perhaps other causes, and the crab-grass and sand- 



INTRODUCTION. < 

burs have come in badly. I would like the benefit of your experience as to what 
is best to do: but let me state first, there is a good deal of alfalfa on the field. 
Now please advise me whether it is best to plow up the field this fall and sow in 
the spring, or wait until spring and rake off all the dead crab-grass, etc.. and 
disk harrow the fields, sowing where it is needed, or, after the heavy frosts of 
October, this year, will it be advisable to burn off the crab-grass? If that were 
done the alfalfa left might winter-kill. Is there any probability that the disk 
harrow will cut the crown off the alfalfa and kill it; did it kill any in your ex- 
periments? Would it be advisable to disk harrow the ground in June after the 
first crop has been cut off? How much of an angle do you set the wheels of the 
harrow when doing the work ? If you will kindly give me the benefit of your ex- 
perience in the matter, you will greatly oblige me. Very truly yours, 

Albert F. Thayer. 

Leroy, Kan., October 21, 1898. 

Dear Sir: I notice in the Capital that you advise farmers to disk and cross- 
disk alfalfa fields to rid them of grasshoppers. I have four small fields of alfalfa, 
sown in 1895, 1896, 1897, and 1898 ; the grasshoppers are stripping them in spots. 
I am afraid to use the disk without some instructions. Is there any danger of 
setting a sharp disk at such an angle as to cut off the alfalfa roots and kill the 
plant, or is there any danger of disking too deep? Hoping you will be kind 
enough to give me some light on this subject, I am, 

Very truly yours, John H. Silsby. 

P. S. — How old must the plants be before it is safe to use the disk on them? 

St. Joseph, Mo. 
Dear Sir: I have over 500 acres in alfalfa [in Norton county, Kansas,] and 
intend raising that number of acres as soon as I get the ground in order. Some 
of this alfalfa is over six years old and some was put out as late as last spring, £ 
believe that the oldest of my alfalfa yields the most, and I think that it takes at 
least three years before a full crop can be harvested. The grasshoppers favor al- 
falfa fields on account of the tenderness of the plant, which grows so fast during 
the season. They certainly prefer alfalfa to corn and other cereals, and only 
leave alfalfa fields when they are destroyed, and then take to the corn-fields or 
whatever other cereals adjoin the alfalfa fields. I believe the conditions concern- 
ing alfalfa appear to be conducive to the multiplication of grasshoppers, as they 
generally lay their eggs there before leaving. I would like to have you advise me 
what headway has been made toward destroying the pest when it is small, and if 
you know any implement or tool made for that purpose, or have any idea to pre- 
sent, I will gladly receive it, as I am anxious to save the second and third crops of 
alfalfa. They do not bother the first crop, as it is generally ready to cut before 
the grasshoppers do any damage. Kindly let me hear from you at your earliest 
convenience, and oblige, Yours truly, A. J. Bru.nswk;. 

That these and many other letters might be clearly answered, mid 
those concerned be informed more fully upon benefits not yet enjoyed 
from alfalfa, this publication is sent forth. 

It has been deemed convenient and wise to present the subject in 
two parts ; the first will treat of alfalfa and grasshoppers, the second 
of alfalfa and bees. It is highly gratifying to state that the conclu- 
sions of Part I show that the best methods of alfalfa culture are those 



8 INTRODUCTION. 

which are the most conducive to the prevention of grasshoppers, and 

that the deductions of Part II show that while alfalfa is one of the 

first of our forage plants, its choicest product is not to be found in 

the hay-rack, but upon the farmer's table, carried thither by the 

busy bee. 

S. J. H. 

January 9, 1899. 



GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 



TN the minds of some there exists an opinion that among states 
Kansas alone has suffered most, is most subject to injury from 
grasshoppers, that these grasshoppers are migratory, that there is no 
means of checking them — hence, they are a necessary evil, and the 
less said about them the better. 

For the benefit of such, as well as for general information, it may 
be well to give the situation as it is. Since the Rocky Mountain Lo- 
cust is the most renowned, we have placed in brief form, as taken 
from Riley, Brunei", Packard, and others, the data following, showing 
number of annual visitations the Rocky Mountain Locust has made, 
and the states which these locusts visited. These insects doubt- 
less occurred frequently prior to dates given, but no records were 
retained, since these regions were at that time uninhabited by record- 
keeping people. The record from 1866 is full; the completeness of 
the record from 1866 is due, not necessarily to greater prevalence of 
the locust, but to better facilities for securing such data. 

I have placed after each state here named the number of annual 
appearances of the Rocky Mountain Locust within the twenty-eight 
years between 1851 and 1878. Before 1851 we have no authentic 
records, and since 1878 this locust has committed little damage in this 
state. For this reason this period has been chosen. 

Number of annual visitations of the Rocky Mountain Locust to 
states named, during the period 1851-1878 : 

Arkansas, 2. Kansas, 14. New Mexico, 3. 

British N. America, 10. Minnesota, 18. Texas, 15. 

Colorado, 1:2. Missouri, 8. Utah, 26. 

Dakota, 17. Montana, 18. Washington, / , 

Idaho, 5. Nebraska, 13. Oregon, \ 

Indian Territory, 5. Nevada, i. Wyoming, 10. 
Iowa, 15. 

While Kansas has been free from the attacks of these insects since 
1878, it has not been so with some of the other states named, notably 
Minnesota, where, in 1891, the crops of several counties were com- 
pletely taken by this locust. From a glance at the list, it can be seen 
that, up to 1878, seven states had a greater number of visitations from 
this locust than Kansas. Further, it may be well to note that their 
were only three seasons in Kansas when this grasshopper's damages 

(9) 



10 GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 

were severe or general. To these facts add the statement that other 
states have been visited since the migratory grasshoppers made their 
last pilgrimage to Kansas, and it can be readily seen that Kansas by no 
means stands first nor second, but stands eighth in rank as host for 
this far-famed locust. 

This list does not take into account the presence of native grass- 
hoppers. These have made their appearance at times in destructive 
numbers in all of the territory named in this table. Not only over 
this western territory, but the New England states as well have suf- 
fered from the voracious appetites of resident locusts. Grasshoppers 
are spoken of historically in the East; they can be made "past tenses" 
in Kansas. The purpose of this article is not to treat of the migra- 
tory locusts, but those which nourish and die in the vicinity of their 
birthplace. 

Grasshoppers belong to the order of insects known as Orthoptera, 
or straight-winged insects, such as the cricket, katydid, and praying 
horse. This order is divided into several families, of which the Ac- 
rididse or grasshoppers form one. Since the subdivisions or subfami- 
lies are classed according to habits as well as structure, it might be 
well to mention them briefly, so that the casual observer may know 
from the insect in hand whether or not it is a highly injurious form. 

One group, found more generally in low and marshy land, is char- 
acterized by a very receding front, forming a sharp angle at vertex of 
the head. This subfamily, Tryxalincs, is not abundant enough to 
cause serious damage. 

Common along the sides of roads and field is a dusky grasshopper, 
showing as it flies a dark hind wing with white bordor. Frequently 
it pauses in the air, flitting its wings before alighting. This is the 
Carolina Locust (Dissosteira Carolina), or "dust-hopper,"' so called 
from its fondness for roadsides and dusty places. This familiar insect 
belongs to the subfamily (Edipodince, a group characterized by rough 
prominent ridge on crest of prothorax, the hood-shaped part immedi- 
ately behind the head. While these are injurious at times, they do 
not. in this country, possess migratory instinct to any great extent. 

The next group, the Acridiincs, contains our most injurious forms. 
The prothorax is usually smooth on top, the breast between front legs 
usually extended into a tubercle. To this group belong those grass- 
hoppers that migrate, and those that thrive well on cultivated crops 
in the locality of birth. 



GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 11 



NATIVE GRASSHOPPERS IN KANSAS. 

The native grasshopper has made himself felt in Kansas, and is lia- 
ble to do so again unless he becomes the subject of intelligent attack. 
In a trip for observation, Professor Osborne, in 1891, reported these 
grasshoppers as causing considerable damage to crops along the Ar- 
kansas valley, in the western part of this state. Since that time larger 
areas of cultivated ground have furnished more food and the possi- 
bility of a greater production of resident locusts. This matter was 
brought directly to the notice of the writer, by letters received in Au- 
gust and September, 1897, from Supt. Geo. W. Watson, of the land 
department of the Alfalfa, Irrigation and Land Company, Kinsley, 
Kan. These letters were referred to us by Mr. F. D. Coburn, secretary 
state board of agriculture. From the nature of this correspondence, 
it was thought advisable to visit that locality, to obtain, in detail, ex- 
isting conditions. Upon returning, a report was issued, by Professor 
Snow and myself, an extract from which I herewith give, to show the 
state of affairs : 

On the morning of the 30th, Mr. R. E. Edwards, president of the Kinsley 
Bank, took us to a large tract of alfalfa southwest of Kinsley. There are about 
400 acres of alfalfa in this piece, all the property of Mr. Edwards. Here we 
found a few of the Rocky Mountain Locust,* but many more of what is known as 
the Differential Locust, or Melanoplus differentialis. The farmers speak 
of them as ''those big yellow fellows." Mr. Edwards stated that the grasshop- 
pers had not been so injurious in that tract as farther west. Yet wherever the 
alfalfa was young and tender from recent sowing nothing appeared above ground 
but stubble. Where the plants were older and tougher, the damage was not so 
noticeable. In the afternoon and the next forenoon we visited a number of alfalfa 
fields, and found conditions much the same as upon the first day. 

In the afternoon of the 30th, Hon. A. C. Dyer, county attorney for Edwards 
county, took us to a locality west of Kinsley where the damage had been great. 
Here the small Rocky Mountain Locust| was more abundant, with a goodly number 
of the Two-striped, Melanoplus bivitattus, but, as before, the Differential Lo- 
cust was by far the more abundant. Adjacent to one piece of alfalfa there had 
been a piece of corn which they entered after the alfalfa had been cut and com- 
pletely stripped it, killing it before tassels had appeared. 

It was not, however, for the purpose of observing the amount of damage done 
that the visit was made so much as to note existing conditions. These will be 
discussed farther on under the head of ''Alfalfa and the Grasshoppers.' ' Here we 
will say that everywhere we were glad to observe that of the Differential Locust 
(3/. differential is) there were apparently as many dead as alive to be seen. Nat- 
ural enemies were at work, but too late to be of any assistance in preserving this 
year's crop, though certainly of benefit in curtailing the number of eggs which 

*This was in accordance with a determination made for us. Specimens after- 
ward sent by request to Mr. W. D. Hunter, Nebraska State University, were cor- 
rectly determined as the Lesser Migratory Locust, Melanoplus atlanis. 

t These were afterward determined by Dr. Hough as Sarcophaga cimbicis 
Town. 



12 GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 

would hatch to destroy next year's growth. In many cases the cause for death 
was apparently the work of a fly which deposits its eggs upon the back of the 
grasshopper. The lar^a? —small, whitish, worm-like creatures, or maggots soon 
find their way into the interior of the grasshopper and produce the death of the 
insect. These larva? were found in a number of the specimens taken, and later 
two of them changed in the laboratory to adults. They proved to be flesh-flies 
(Sarcophaga sp. ) Many of the 'hoppers had been deprived of one or both 
wings — the work of the locust mite. 

As previously stated, by the request and with the cooperation of 
a number of the leading alfalfa growers of this locality I resumed my 
investigations upon this subject on the 5th of July. That the situa- 
tion may be more clearly understood, it is probably better to give by 
counties the conditions existing in the territory studied : 

Edwards County. — In the immediate vicinity of Kinsley no great 
damage was done. A drive over the greater part of Edwards county, 
in company with Superintendent Smart, showed the greatest damage 
to be about fifteen miles southwest of Kinsley. Here large areas of 
alfalfa are grown. There were 3000 acres in one tract in the immedi- 
ate vicinity of my camp. The first crop of alfalfa was being cut, and 
by this time the wingless nymphs w T ere moving into adjacent corn- 
fields. The numbers were by no means general over the entire quarter- 
sections of alfalfa, but appeared to be very thick in spots. Lying on 
the south of one quarter-section which was being cut was about thirty 
acres of good corn just beginning to tassel. Insects moved into this, 
and instead of eating the leaves they ascended the stalks and ate the 
tender young tassels. In some cases where the ear of corn was shoot- 
ing they devoured that before attacking the leaves. They did not seem 
to work rapidly, but within two w r eeks had prevented an ear of corn 
from forming upon that piece of land. Upon another larger piece of 
corn directly east of this, they entered at one corner and stripped that 
corner in the shape of a triangle including about ten acres. In Ed- 
wards county, I had not observed nor did I hear of damage being done 
to oats, wheat, or barley. Four quarter-sections of alfalfa in that lo- 
cality, having a rather thin stand, were kept stripped throughout the 
season, so that at no time was the forage worth the cutting. In the 
midst of these was where experiments were conducted last winter, of 
which extended mention will be made in this report. And here also 
practical applications of the "hopper-dozer" were conducted, concern- 
ing which discussions and descriptions will appear later in this report. 
Mulberry trees and other fruit-trees in the vicinity of the alfalfa fields 
were, after the first cutting of the alfalfa, entirely stripped of their 
leaves. Weeds such as the sunflower and lamb's-quarters were de- 
nuded, leaving only the bare, white, stripped stalks standing. 



GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 13 

Ford County. — In Ford county the conditions were much the 
same as in Edwards county. Damage was local. In one field theiv 
would be large numbers of grasshoppers and in other fields near by 
there would not be an unusual number. An examination of the 
species doing the damage showed that the one which by its numbers 
was the cause of a great part of the injury was the yellow grasshopper,* 
Melanoplus ditferentialis. There was also present the Two-striped 
Locust. Melanoplus bivitattus. When I first entered the county this 
Two-striped Locust was everywhere in the adult stage. While upon the 
first day of my investigations I did not see more than half a dozen 
adult individuals of the yellow locust. At different times during my 
investigations I tried to ascertain the relative numbers of these two 
specif s, by catching grasshoppers just as they came, and concluded 
that there were about twenty-five yellow locusts for every one of the 
Two-striped Locust. More will be said in another place concerning the 
different species in cultivated grounds and adjoining pastures. 

Finney County. — By request, I went to Finney county to make an 
investigation of the condition there. In company with Mr. C. S. 
Hambleton, of Garden City, I drove first west of Garden City, to the 
ranch of Mr. John A. Stevens, where on the iorth side of the road 
was a fine alfalfa field, bringing forth its second crop, while on the 
other side of the road was another alfalfa field whose first crop was 
being stripped by the native grasshoppers. About two miles farther 
west we came to a large apple, peach and plum orchard on the north 
side of the road. The apples were on the north boundary of the or- 
chard, the peaches in the middle, and the plums on the side near the 
road. The apple orchard had been stripped of leaves, and in some 
places three or four grasshoppers could be found eating at a single 
apple. The peaches had been eaten off, leaving the bare pits clinging 
to the twigs. The young twig growth of peach trees had been eaten 
in preference to the foliage. A man was there at work building 
smudges to turn the locusts from the plums, which were almost 
ready to gather. Upon inquiry, I learned that this farm had been 
largely seeded to alfalfa, but during the last two years had been pas- 
tured. The damage done to this place was the greatest that I ob- 
served in any of the thirteen counties that I visited. I believe the 
cause is so evident that at this point will say no more than simply 
to call attention to the fact that the ground upon this plat had not 

* This was the term commonly applied by the farmers of that region. Another 
locust bears this common name, and this one is generally spoken of as the 
Differential Locust. In this report, however, I have frequently used the term 
yellow locust, and wherever used it has reference to Melanoplus differential 'is. 
I do this because this insect is quite generally known over the region covered by 
this report as the " yellow grasshopper." The words locust and grasshopper arc 
used interchangeably. 



14 GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 

been disturbed for more than two years past. The previous cultiva- 
tion had left the alfalfa as a food not only for the cattle, but for the 
native grasshopper, which flourished undisturbed. Returning by an- 
other route, and going out east of town, we found the damage nowhere 
general, but all alfalfa fields showed the effects of grasshoppers in 
places. 

Hamilton County. — Being also requested to visit Hamilton county, 
I went there upon the 18th of July. Mr. C. M. Humphrey, county 
treasurer, being aware of my coming, took me to a number of farms 
in the vicinity of Syracuse. While in his office I met Hon. Thomas 
H. Ford, who gave me a cordial invitation to accompany him home to 
his ranch, about five miles east of Syracuse. Having been previously 
informed that he was one of the largest alfalfa growers in the county, I 
readily accepted. On our way out we observed grasshoppers glisten- 
ing, as Mr. Ford termed it, from the tops of the alfalfa stalks grow- 
ing in fields adjoining the road. I walked through all of these fields, to 
make sure of the species most prevalent, and in every case found the 
Differential Locust by far the most numerous. In one corner of a field, 
comprising less than an acre, I found a fungous disease, Empusa 
grilli, at work. Here were goodly numbers of locusts clinging in 
the tops of the alfalfa stalks. I was much interested here, as this 
was the first time I had observed the disease this season. Upon 
reaching Mr. Ford's place, I was told the grasshoppers had been so 
bad that he saw the only way to save so large a crop of alfalfa was to 
cut it all down as fast as possible. Accordingly, at that time the 
whole alfalfa crop — more than 100 acres in all — was either in the 
windrow, swath, or shock, except a small piece that he had allowed 
to remain, hoping to secure seed. His young orchard was being 
rapidly stripped by the grasshoppers which had been driven out of 
the alfalfa. His neighbor on the east, Mr. Price, was also suffer- 
ing a great loss of peaches in satisfying the appetites of these 
creatures. Here was the first time I had had the opportunity to 
observe the work of the locusts in the irrigated districts. Former 
reports have stated that these native locusts deposit their eggs along 
the irrigating ditches, and that along these the damage is the great- 
est. My own observation, and the testimony of all the farmers con- 
sulted, did not bear out the above facts. On the contrary, the most 
luxuriant growth of alfalfa is on the sides of the ditches. Many of 
the farmers here were of the opinion that these locusts come down 
from the prairies. I mention this fact here, because in my subse- 
quent investigations I gave this point special attention. Before leav- 
ing the subject of Hamilton county, I might state that I returned two 
weeks later to observe the action of the fungus disease, Empusa 



GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 15 

grilli, in the corner of the field before mentioned, and, while plenty 
of grasshoppers were still in that corner of the field, I could see no per- 
ceptible increase in the number of dead ones clinging to the branches 
of the alfalfa. From Syracuse I drove due north through Hamilton 
county, passing Stowell post-office, two miles and one-half on the 
east, and continuing north into Greeley county. I was very much 
interested in noting the species prevalent on these high plains. The 
Differential Locust, the one to which I gave the closest attention at all 
times, was found few in numbers among those weeds that thrive only 
on ground which has previously been broken. Near Stowell I came 
upon a large peach orchard standing out unprotected on the plain, and 
found therein some peaches, but not a single yellow grasshopper. An 
occasional Lubber grasshopper. Brachystola magna, and a number of 
the smaller species of the genus Melanoplus, were all that were com- 
mon on the open prairie away from those weeds which are wont to 
grow upon cultivated lands. 

Greeley County. — I entered Greeley county, six miles north and 
two and one-half west of Stowell, and found a few grasshoppers be- 
tween that point and Horace, where I spent the night. Those that I 
did find were the same as in Hamilton county, and existed under like 
conditions. North of Horace, in the valley of White Woman creek, 
there are a number of farms growing corn, Kafir-corn, barley, and 
sorghum. I visited these and conversed with the owners. From these 
farmers I learned that grasshoppers were not troubling them, and that 
they had suffered no serious damage from these insects in recent years. 
Leaving this valley. I proceeded north in the direction of Sharon 
Springs. Near the north line of Greeley county, and extending over 
into Wallace, is a settlement of Swedish farmers, in the vicinity of 
Stockholm. I found them at this date, 27th of July, in possession of 
excellent crops of corn and barley, and fine patches of melons and 
garden vegetables. At no place were the grasshoppers at all numer- 
ous. Some of these farmers had been residing here for ten years, and 
they told me that in that time they had never had serious trouble with 
these insects. My experience with these native grasshoppers has been 
that they are exceedingly fond of garden vegetables and melons. And 
from what I have learned of their foraging propensities. I believe that, 
had they been hatched in any numbers upon the plains adjoining 
these farmers, they would certainly have found the way to these tooth- 
some vegetables and tender melon vines. Mr. C. J. Momyer, Hurt, 
Greeley county. Kansas, wrote me that native grasshoppers were doing 
slight damage around the edge of his corn and cow-peas. He spoke 
also of the Lubber grasshopper, Brachystola magna, working upon the 
vines. He also spoke of the habit, already noted, of the yellow grass- 
with a heavy roller before sowing the wheat. In substantiation of 



16 GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 

hopper eating the tassels and silk of the corn before attacking the 
leaves. Native grasshoppers have troubled him somewhat for rive 
years. Farmers of this vicinity do not, as a rule, plow their ground 
every year. It was his opinion that the best wheat could be secured 
only from ground thoroughly cultivated before sowing. Specimens 
of grasshoppers received from him proved to be the Differential Locust, 
M. dift'erentialis. 

Wallace County. — Conditions continued the same on the road 
into Sharon Springs. The valley of the Smoky Hill river contains 
considerable alfalfa. I met a number of farmers of this valley who 
were in Sharon Springs trading. From them I learned that the grass- 
hoppers had cut down the alfalfa in patches in the fields, but there 
w T as no general or sweeping destruction being caused by them. 

Logan County. — From Sharon Springs I went on a slow train 
over the Union Pacific through Logan county as far as Oakley. 
From what I could see from the train and ascertain from farmers 
boarding the train at the smaller stations, I was satisfied that condi- 
tions were in no way different -from the counties previously visited. 
From Oakley I went north by train to Colby. 

Thomas County. — Inquiries made at Colby gave answers much 
the same as those previously received, and made me believe that a 
drive out through the country would not add any new facts concern- 
ing the actions of the grasshopper under consideration. 

Sherman County. — Press reports having been sent out from Good- 
land concerning the prevalence of grasshoppers along the railroad, 
their numbers being reported such as to interfere with the action of 
the drive-wheels upon the rails, I decided to go out and investigate. 
Upon reaching Goodland. I was taken out in the gardens and yards of 
the city by Attorney G. L. Calvert, and shown the actions of the lo- 
custs upon the gardens. From Mr. Calvert I also learned that the 
damage from grasshoppers in Sherman county had been almost en- 
tirely confined to the crops of small grains; that the grasshoppers 
had eaten off the heads of the wheat, oats and barley to a considerable 
extent, in some fields. In the current issue of the Goodland Repub- 
lican, I noticed that a correspondent from one of the outlying post- 
offices mentioned the fact that grasshoppers were injuring gardens 
seriously. In conversation with Mr. William Walker, a hardware 
merchant of Goodland, and also owner of farm lands managed under 
his direction, I learned that it was a custom there to sow the wheat 
upon the ground without giving the land previous cultivation. It 
was Mr. Walker's opinion that better yields could be secured if the 
surface of the ground was thoroughly pulverized and then packed 
this, he gave the instance of a man who, this year, had sown wheat 
upon ground so prepared and secured a heavier yield of wheat which 



GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 17 

tested over sixty pounds to the bushel. Later, I went to the round- 
house of the Rock Island railroad, at Goodland, and examined a num- 
ber of the cow-catchers of the engines, as they came in off their runs, 
in order to ascertain the species of grasshoppers caught along the 
track. I found the species which were most common there to be the 
Long-winged Locust, Dissosteira longipennis, the Carolina Locust, 
Dissosteira Carolina, and the yellow locust, Melanoj>his t/iff'erentialis. 
Through the courtesy of General Foreman Loy and his assistant, I 
was enabled to meet a number of the engineers and learn from them 
the state of the case. From Engineer Maclellan I learned that the 
trouble with the grasshoppers was always at night, and that at no time 
were they so plentiful but that an engine having forced sand draft 
could easily pass over them in safety; and further, that they had ex- 
perienced some difficulty on the run between Goodland and Norton. 
So, when leaving Goodland, I placed myself in a favorable position to 
view the grasshoppers as they flew by in front of the engine, and 
noted that no grasshoppers arose except as the train was passing be- 
tween fields where the crop was being harvested on the one side and 
corn or some other crop standing on the other side. The numbers at 
these places were not great. It was evident, however, that the grass- 
hoppers, in moving into the new feeding ground in the evening when 
the ground had become cool, were attracted by the steel rails which 
retained the heat longer than the ground, and when thus collected 
caused the trouble to the trains. It seemed conclusive that the inter- 
ference on the track w T as not because of the number of grasshoppers, 
but because those in the vicinity of the track were drawn to the rail 
by the heat. Some of the newspaper accounts which I read would 
lead one to believe that they were creeping over the track in a contin- 
uous mass. Letters received in answer to inquiries, from Messrs. D. 
A. Long, of Ruleton, and T. W. Simmons, of Goodland, gave the 
following facts : Mr. Simmons stated that they severely damaged his 
oats. corn, potatoes, and garden vegetables. He stated that those big 
yellow grasshoppers mined out the pie-plant : he feared that some of 
his trees, being stripped so early, are permanently injured. Mr. Sim- 
mons said that this was the first year that grasshoppers had ever com- 
mitted any serious depredations, and that the damage this jear was 
quite local in its extent. He also said it is the belief there among 
many that ground plowed dried out w T orse than when not plowed, and 
that it was the custom to drill the wheat in the stubble year after 
year. Specimens received from Mr. Simmons were as expected — tin- 
Differential grasshopper. Mr. Long's letter is as follows : 

Dear Sir: In reply to yours of the 18th, in regard to grasshoppers, I would 
say that they did a great deal of damage here this year in spots, mostly in the 
fields of wheat, barley, and oats, by cutting off the heads of the grain. Some 
—2 



18 GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 

fields suffered one-fourth, some one-third; the 'hopper seems to breed right in the 
field. There was no effort put forth to destroy them. The farmers do not plow 
their ground; they generally disk or drill in the grain. I think deep plowing 
would be a success, and in fact it has proven to be the case here this year, as 
some of the farmers had plowed deep, and then drilled their wheat in deep, and 
almost doubled the yield, and increased quality as well. The 'hoppers, I have ob- 
served, appear about the middle of June, and do their work in the month of July. 
Last year they were killed off by a little red bug or mite so small one could hardly 
see it with the naked eye. I will send you a few specimens in a few days. They 
are now working on the corn-fields, on the outer edge only. 

Yours truly, D. A. Long, 

Ruleton, Sherman county, Kansas. 

Decatur County. — Reports had been sent me of trouble from 
grasshoppers in Decatur. Observations that I took in the vicinity of 
Dresden and Jennings showed conditions similar to those already 
stated. At Dresden I noted a field of forty acres of corn, lying north 
of a field of oats just harvested, almost entirely stripped, while just 
across the road was another field of equal size entirely free from at- 
tack. Such instances could be observed in every county where I w 7 as. 

Norton County. — It was my intention to visit a number of agri- 
cultural localities of Norton county. I was fortunate, how T ever, in 
meeting in the office of Judge Case, County Surveyor J. C. Newell, 
whose work had recently taken him over all parts of the county. Mr. 
Newell stated that the damage in Norton was almost wholly confined to 
alfalfa. He said of thirty pieces of alfalfa, ranging in size from ten to 
eighty acres, he had noticed that the effects of grasshoppers were 
noticeable more or less in all. He had observed no alfalfa fields that 
had been entirely stripped. In some the blooms and seed had been 
taken off, and in others spots here and there in the field had been 
eaten to the ground. Mr. E. E. Ames, of Norton, also told me that 
grasshoppers were doing slight damage in 100 acres of alfalfa which 
he owned. Mr. A. J. Brunswig has large alfalfa interests in this 
county, and on page 7 I have taken the liberty to quote a letter from 
him, giving his observations. 

Light damages were being reported by the press from other locali- 
ties, but I decided that the territory covered gave me a clear idea of 
the situation in this state. So, after leaving Norton county, I re- 
turned to my field laboratory in Edwards county to complete ob- 
servations upoii the life-history of the Differential grasshopper. 



GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 



19 



SPECIES OF GRASSHOPPERS PREVALENT. 

It has been previously stated that the Differential Locust, Melanop- 
lus differ entialis, was by far the most abundant. Melanoplus at- 
lanis, the Lesser Migratory Locust, and Melanoplus bivitattus, the 
Two-striped Locust, were numerous. The Red-legged Locust, Melan- 
oplus femur-rubrum, was taken occasionally, generally along the 
roadside. The Packard Locust, Melanoplus packardi, was not un- 
common. On September 1, I saw females of the Packard Locust 
ovipositing in an alfalfa field in Edwards county. The Rocky 
Mountain Locust, Melanoplus spretus, was also taken. 




Fig. 1. (Original.) Melanoplus differ entialis; female. 




Fig. 2. (Original.) Melanoplus differentialis ; male. 

It is of interest to note the relative numbers of M. spretus and 
M. atlanis present. With this object in view, I captured, just as 
they came, a number of these allied species, and found among that 
number sixty-eight specimens of M. atlanis and nineteen specimens 
of M. spretus. This observation was made in the western part of 
Edwards county. The Long- winged Locust, Dissosteira longipen- 
nis, was abundant in one locality, southwestern part of Edwards 
county ; here, in September, the females deposited their eggs in 
the alfalfa fields. The Carolina Locust, Dissosteira Carolina, was 
numerous along the roads. 

The determination of these species was made by the writer, and 
for the accuracy of the work he is responsible. 



20 GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 



LIFE-HISTORY OF THE DIFFERENTIAL LOCUST. 

Melanoplus differentialis Thos. 

This term, in its biologic sense, refers to the cycle of the individual 
from the embryo until the fulfilment of its mission in the perpetuation 
of its species and its retirement in favor of its progeny. The life of 
the locust may be said to begin with the egg, in which the following 
changes take place, and are noted under the head of — 

EMBRYOLOGY. 
By Mr. C. E. McClung, Department of Zoology. Instructor in Embryology. 

Description of the egg. — The arrangement of the eggs in the ovary 
and the formation of the capsule have already been described; it is 
therefore only necessary to add a decription of the individual egg. 
This, at the time of oviposition, is an ovate cylindrical body, about 
5 mm. by 1.25 mm. in size, and of a bright yellow color, gradually be- 
coming darker with age. The cylindrical form is not perfect, being 
modified in such a manner that the anterior side of the egg, as it lies 
in the mother insect, is flattened or even concave, while the opposite 
side is equally convex (fig. 3). The two ends are very similar in 
shape, each being bluntly pointed. 




Fig. 3. Eggs of Melanoplus differentialis. 
(About five diameters.) 

The egg is protected by two coats, the exterior (chorion), a secre- 
tion of the follicular epithelium; and the interior (vitelline mem- 
brane), the external, indurated portion of the egg substance. The 
chorion is a close fitting shell, completely enclosing the ovum. It is 
usually of a dull yellow color, and is marked over its entire surface 
by ridges that cross each other in such a manner as to form an irreg- 
ular hexagonal pattern. This is merely a cast of the lining of the 
ovarian follicle, registered in its secretion. The chorion is, at first, 




GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 21 

tough and resistant, but, on exposure to the 

elements, becomes friable and easily separable. 

Upon the removal of this external covering, 

the clear, bright yellow of the underlying egg 

substance is seen. 

The structureless vitelline membrane forms 

aii efficient protection for the enclosed egg. 
Fig4 It withstands drying, and is broken only by 

the application of considerable pressure. Im- 
mediately beneath it is a layer of protoplasmic material, the real liv- 
ing matter of the egg, and within this a considerable quantity of 
nutritive material, the yolk. 

My observations upon these eggs, manner of placing in the ground 
and the actions of the female during the time of oviposition are here- 
with given. A female in quest of a suitable position for placing the 
eggs generally moves slowly about for some time testing the ground 
over which she passes. During this time the tip of the abdomen is 
turned downward and, stopping momentarily, the ovipositors (plate 
II ) are applied to the ground. I observed one female spending thirty 
minutes in this way : a crevice in the soil being selected and worked 
upon for a time, then abandoned for solid ground. Some, however, 
begin digging and complete the work where the first attempt is made. 
Small elevated spots on the surface appear to be much chosen. Fre- 
quently these little hillocks were not noticeable until marked by a 
locust digging into the crest. From plate III, figures g, g', g", it is 
evident that there has been a consensus of opinion in these cases con- 
cerning the suitability of the place for oviposition. Sandy soil, when 
present, seems preferable. 

That field observations might be corroborated in the laboratory, I 
brought home 130 of the yellow locusts, more than 100 of these being 
females, for study in the vivarium. 

In one cage sixty were placed, and blue-grass sod, clover sod, sand 
and dirt mixed, and pure sand: each class of soil occupied a certain part 
of the floor, the whole floor being well packed by sprinkling. In this 
cage, the pure sand was chosen by all except eight, which placed their 
eggs in the sand and dirt mixed. Refuse from the vegetation given 
them for food seemed in no way to intefere with their work. I saw 
three of them hid away in this trash busily engaged in ovipositing. 

A suitable place chosen, the locust forces a hole in the ground by 
means of the two pairs of horny-tipped ovipositors at the end of the 
abdomen. These are opened and closed and the full weight of the 
body is brought to bear on them. In this way a receptacle is made, 
often in extremely firm ground, for the eggs. 



GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 23 

Each egg is preceded by a light-colored mucous fluid. Part of this 
fluid passes through the walls of the cavity and causes surrounding 
particles of dirt, sand and in some cases small clods (see plate in, fig. 
d ) to adhere, so that the pods when removed from the ground are 
protected first by a coat of this sticky substance and an outer layer 
■composed of particles of surrounding earth. This forms a brittle crust 
which, when pressed, often scales off, as shown by plate in, c. When 
the ground is firm, the walls of the pod are generally broken away 
when the earth is disturbed, thus exposing the naked eg.us. 

This substance before hardening is quite plastic ; after hardening 
it is soinewhat fragile. It is insoluble in water. A pod which re- 
mained in water thirty days appeared to be as firm as when placed 
there. When the eggs are all deposited the female covers them with 
a small amount of this sebaceous fluid. This hardens into a honey- 
comb structure, as shown is cross-section of top of pod Fr in plate ill. 
The cross-line near top of pod, at b' in plate III, shows depth of this 
covering. The whole pod is ^finished about one-quarter inch below 
the surface of the ground, and the ground covered over, leaving no 
trace of work, as shown on ground surface in plate II. 

The arrangement of the eggs is shown in the longitudinal section of 
the pod in the foreground of plate II. 

Number of eggs in pod is about 100, and in the ovary about the 
same number can be counted. 

Plate II is from nature. The writer had made a section through 
the vivarium, showing egg pods in position, and, while the artist was 
sketching this, a locust very accommodatingly came forward, began and 
completed the work of oviposition. 

Where the eggs are laid is of greatest interest to the farmer. The 
alfalfa fields with no intervening weeds between the alfalfa plants 
furnish excellent open spots for oviposition. Here I saw many species 
placing their eggs, and was surprised to find the Long- winged Locust, 
Dissosteira longipennis, among the number. Mr. Wm. Weber, who 
was with me and rendered valuable assistance during the summer, gave 
this point careful attention. He was able to cover considerable terri- 
tory in the southwest portion of Edwards county. This territory in- 
cluded pastures, alfalfa fields, and cultivated lands. He found the 
yellow grasshoppers depositing eggs in all these places. They were far 
more abundant, however, in the alfalfa fields, and remarkably so in the 



Description of Plate II.— Melanojilus differentialis, female, ovipositing : 
egg-pods of same species exposed to view. Grasshopper at right is depositing 
eggs. Three egg-pods in section of soil show position of pods and depth from 
the surface. Egg-pod in sand near grasshopper. Egg-pod in foreground, opened 
on one side to show position of eggs within; this one contained 109 eggs. 




PLATE III. (Original.) See Bottom of Opposite Page. 



GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 25 

middle ridge of roads passing through the fields. In one place he saw, 
on a road ridge, in a space about twenty inches wide by three rods 
long, one grasshopper per every two inches square of ground, oviposit- 
ing. 

The first oviposition that I observed occurred September 10, and 
after making a large number of dissections I feel reasonably certain 
that few eggs were deposited before that time. Ovipositions were not 
of general occurrence until September 20, and egg laying was contin- 
ued until cold weather. 

Eggs placed in the ground at this late season of the year will not 
receive heat sufficient to hatch, so that the species pass the rigorous 
period of winter in the egg-pod. During the first warm month of 
spring their eggs begin to hatch ; then come consumption of food and 
growth of body. Growth means expansion. The insect is surrounded 
from birth by a rigid skeleton. This, instead of enlarging, yields to 
another ; that is, the outer skin is shed ; an under one, at first soft and 
accommodating, makes allowance for the increase in size. This 
skeleton soon becomes fixed and the insect's size soon requires a new 
armament. This change, commonly called "shedding the skin," is 
technically known as molting. Observations upon the number of 
molts this insect undergoes are not yet completed. 

The most interesting molt is the last one, the one in which the 
grasshopper brings out from the wings pads of the skin, which is 
being cast off. fully developed wings. The best place for watching 
this transformation was in standing corn, in fields adjacent to alfalfa 
fields. Plate IV was made, under direction, from the author's sketches 
and a large number of alcoholic specimens taken in every stage of the 
transformation. 

The full-grown nymph ceases to eat and. with the head almost in- 
variably downward and the antenna? drooping, fastens the claws firmly 
into the stalk or blade, remains quiet for a short period, during which 
it can be handled without being disturbed; a pulsating motion be- 
gins in the center of the back of thorax ; this increases until the whole 



Description of Plate III. — Egg-pods of Melanoptus differentia lis taken 
from a sandy soil, showing variations in shape, a, pod with top broken off ; b, 
pods made of sand with larger grains of sand or stone adhering; c, small portion 
of outside shell broken off; d, specimens made of sand and dirt with stones or 
small dead rootlets: d', specimens composed of sand and dirt, with clod of dirt 
firmly fixed to the side: e, specimens broken off near the top; /, shows an un- 
finished rod — the grasshopper was disturbed while depositing eggs, and the pod 
taken in this unfinished state; g and g\ specimens taken showing two pods 
firmly fixed to each other, composed of sand; g", four pods of sand and dirt, 
with small stick *md dead rootlets adhering; Fr, cross-section of top of pod, 
showing honeycomb structure made by the sebaceous fluid when dry. 




PLATE IV. (Original.) See Bottom of Opposite Page. 



GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 27 

thorax moves up and down ; soon the skin splits along the back from 
top of the head to line crossing the base of front wings ; the upheav- 
ing action of the thoracic muscles continues until the body drops to 
the ground, leaving the nymph skin clinging to the leaf; the antennae 
lie one on each side of the face and are thus drawn out from under the 
body ; the wings come straight out of the pads as narrow, much- 
wrinkled portions of cuticle. They are about five-eighths of an inch 
long when the insect falls to the ground. Inside of an hour, depend- 
ing upon the weather and time of day, the wings attain their full 
length, one inch to one and one-quarter inches. The legs are not 
brought into use in discarding this skin. Frequently the claws of the 
old skeleton break away from their attachment and the insect falls to 
the ground. This in no way interferes with the transformation. The 
insect, when free from the old covering, though its limbs are quite 
soft and unable to maintain its weight well, crawls to some secluded 
place where it awaits the hardening of the bones and the expansion 
of the wings. Before this is fully completed the insect begins eating 
again. 

This change occurs more frequently in the morning, though I have 
observed it at all hours from sunrise until five o'clock in the afternoon. 
The complete change from beginning of molt until the insects are fully 
developed occupies about one hour and a half on a bright, warm day. 
Frequently I observed Sarcophagid and Tachinid flies flitting ner- 
vously about the newly transformed insect. While I did not observe 
one light upon the locust, it occurred to me that at this time parasitic 
diptera might well place their eggs thereon. 

The first instances of the last molt observed were on July 6, and 
from the number of adults then apparent I feel safe in saying that 
none had reached the adult stage prior to July 1. At this time (July 
1 ) adults of the Two-striped Locust, Melanoplus hivitattus, were com- 
mon, and some of them were pairing. 

These notes were taken in the midst of nymphs in every state of 
change, and frequently five or six were in view at one time. While 
nearly all changed in July, there were some still changing as late as 
September. 



Description of Plate IV. — Various stages of the last molt of Melanoplus 
differentialis. 1, nymph just before the breaking of the skin along back of 
thorax: 2, nymph beginning to come out; S, mature insect dropping to the 
ground; 4, cast-off skin, still clinging to the leaf; 5, grasshopper climbing up, 
spreading wings to dry, and getting ready to eat; 6, fully developed grasshopper 
on corn-stalk. 



28 GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 



HABITS. 



Food. — What this insect will eat depends entirely upon its neces- 
sities. It is a lover of good food, and knows how to find it when pro- 
curable. For instance, it will eat the peaches before attacking the 
tree; it eats the shooting ear and tassel before touching the harden- 
ing blade. A list of food-plants as personally observed are : Trees — 
cottonwood, mulberry, cherry, apple, peach, apricot, plum; herbs — 
alfalfa, Kafir-corn, corn ; all cereals ; all garden vegetables, including 
melons ; sunflowers, lamb's-quarters, hogweed, Russian thistle. Han- 
dles of hay-forks left in the field were frequently roughened by the 
nibbling of these locusts. Farmers in Edwards and Hamilton coun- 
ties mentioned the fact that gloves left about the mowing-machines 
were cut by the insect. Binding-twine has been cut by them so much 
that a twine prepared by recipe not in accord with their tastes is now 
much used. In confinement these locusts will feast upon one another. 

Actions. — Before sunrise nymphs and adults begin to climb to 
the top of weeds, growing crops, fence-posts, or any object standing 
above ground, and remain there until about ten o'clock If the ob- 
ject upon which they rest is edible, they amuse themselves nibbling 
away. I have frequently seen a portion of an alfalfa field fairly glisten 
with the bodies of these insects resting on the tops of the plants. 
About ten o'clock they descend and feed lower down, but ascend 
about three p. M. again. If the day is cloudy and cool the insects are 
sluggish, and remain the whole day upon the ground ; so true is this 
that we had to abandon work with the "hopper-dozer" upon one cool, 
cloudy day. If the day be cloudy and sultry, they eat much the same 
as upon bright, warm days. 

This habit, I believe, accounts in some instances for the belief 
among farmers that this locust comes in flights. One day the blades 
of corn will be ladened down with grasshoppers; the next day not a 
locust will be in sight as the farmer passes by to his work. They 
are upon the ground. Several instances of this kind were brought to 
my notice, where the farmers had reported 'hoppers having left their 
corn, or reappeared, when the conditions were caused by this move- 
ment. Grasshoppers sitting upon the ground, especially when par- 
tially obscured by weeds, do not appear so numerous or so formidable 
as when arrayed against a growing crop. 

Why the borders of the field, are stripped. — Damage to alfalfa is 
most apparent around the eelges. This has leel to the belief that the 
insects enter the alfalfa from outside territory. I observed the same 
conditions around long ricks of alfalfa, along division fences, where 
the alfalfa joined cane sown broadcast, and around large breaks in the 
"stand"' of alfalfa. 



GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 29 

It seems evident to me that, while some may enter from surround- 
ing fields, this stripping of alfalfa at places designated is caused by 
the insects being .checked in their progress; that is, this grasshopper, 
when not feeding, moves, walks awhile, rests, walks, jumps, in no evi- 
dent hurry, each one keeping a somewhat direct course. This action 
obviously takes it to the borders of the alfalfa field. Here, finding its 
food-plant extending no farther, it stops ; it may turn back, may travel 
around the field, feeding as it goes. It is evident that this congregat- 
ing along the borders reduces the vegetation, and alfalfa once cut 
down furnishes in its young, tender shcots extra attractions, so that 
the insects remain here and new growth can make no advancement. 

Around the obstructions above mentioned many more grasshoppers 
could be seen than in the open parts of the fields. I spent much time 
in the vicinity of ricks of alfalfa and noted the movements, in many 
cases following the insects from the open field up to the ricks, and 
saw them in many cases continue their course until they had reached 
the rick, then jump off, and finally find their way past the rick. The 
number seemed to be about the same on every side of the rick. I 
speak of this matter in detail, for it was the one argument everywhere 
advanced in favor of the theory of the insect's entrance from outside 
territory. And that they do come from outside territory is generally 
supposed to be the case. 

Length of Flight. — The flight of this insect is low and heavy, be- 
ing sustained for only a short distance. It is readily taken in the hop- 
per-dozer having sheet-iron back three and one- half feet high. I have 
never seen one carry itself 200 yards at a single flight, though aided 
by strong winds. Riley and Thomas state that this locust has been 
seen, though seldom, at considerable heights, apparently migrating. 

Habitat. — The range of this species, as given by Scudder, embraces 
the Mississippi valley north of latitude 43°, south to the Gulf, west to 
the Pacific, south to central Mexico. It has not been found above 
6000 feet. Recently it has been taken in Camden county, New 
Jersey. Its range in Kansas is defined by the cultivated districts. I 
have seen it upon the streets of our largest cities, and on the tilled 
soil of the high western plains. 

NATURAL ENEMIES. 

Vertebrate. All domestic fowls feed upon locusts; chief among 
these, and highly commendable, is a drove of turkeys. I have seen a 
cat spend a whole day catching grasshoppers. A whole drove of 
blackbirds would sometimes light down where these hoppers were 
plentiful, and hold high carnival. The meadow-lark is a persistent 
locust catcher, and this lark abounds in the localities visited. The 
plover picks a locust to pieces now and then, seemingly preferring 



30 GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 

smaller forms. I came, however, upon a plover on the high plains 
in Greeley county, busily dissecting a large western cricket, Anabrus 
sp. The major part of the food found in stomachs of quails and 
prairie-chickens examined was composed of insects belonging to this 
family. It is safe to say that many birds not generally accredited aid 
in reducing the number of locusts. Professor Snow first ascertained 
that the red-headed woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus), 
yellow-billed cuckoo {Coceyzus americanus), cat-bird (Galeo- 
scoptes carolinensis), red-eyed vireo ( Vireo olivaceus), great- 
crested flycatcher {Myiarchus crinitus), and crow blackbird ( Quis- 
calus versicolor) feed upon the locust. Prof. Samuel Aughey has 
found by not less than 630 cases of dissection that ninety species of 
birds are partial to locusts as food. Many winter birds seek the egg- 
pods for food. 

Mr. F. E. L. Beal* states that grasshoppers are favorite food with 
the yellow-billed cuckoo. Several stomachs examined contained from 
ten to twenty of these insects, a good meal for so small a bird. Katy- 
dids and their eggs were found in the stomachs of these birds. The 
snowy tree-cricket is also used as food. Collectively, this group, 
Orthoptera. were found in 86 of the 155 stomachs examined, and fur- 
nish thirty per cent, of the year's food. Three per cent, of the food 
in May is composed of these insects, and over forty-three per cent, in 
July. 

Mr. S. D. Juddf states that the greater part of the insect food of 
the loggerhead shrike is composed of grasshoppers and crickets, 
and in summer grasshoppers are given preference as food. The bird 
at this season impales upon barbed-wire fences and hedges more in- 
sects than it utilizes, so that an examination of the stomachs would 
not give a correct estimate of the insects destroyed. 

I saw a notice in some paper concerning an observation upon 
snakes, made by Maj. Frank Holsinger, member of the editorial staff 
of the Western Fruit Grower. I wrote Mr. Holsinger for details. 
His letter, a part of which follows, is of great interest : 

"Some years ago, while haying, I had a rake in my hands, when an 
immense blacksnake ran from the windrow. I placed my rake on it 
to hold it, but not wishing to kill it. It immediately disgorged an 
immense amount of grasshoppers, of a kind common in Kansas, a large 
yellow-legged variety that sometimes becomes destructive to our 
meadows. I think the discharge was fully one-half pint, and I could 
discover in it nothing but grasshoppers. I look upon them as our 
friends — rattlers and copperheads excepted. I believe they should 

* Bulletin No. 9, U. S. Dept. Agr. Biological Survey, June 15, 1898, p. 12. 
t Ibid, p. 22. 



GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 



31 



be protected, as their food is from insects deleterious to farming in- 
terests." 

From the description given, it is very probable that the yellow 
grasshoppers referred to belonged to the species now under consider- 
ation. 

Invertebrate. The locust finds, however, its most unrelenting 
enemies within its own class. The accompanying figure 5 shows the 
immature stage of the locust mite, Trombidmm locustarum, Riley. 
These were found, in 
some instances, in such 
numbers on the under 
side of the wings of the 
Differential Locust as to 
cause the wings to stand 
out from the body. Lo- 
custs with one wing or 
both wings eaten off were 
found. The wings of 
many were rendered use- 
less for flight by this 
mite. According to Ri- 
ley, this mite drops from 
the wings when nearly 
full grown, passes through 
the pupal state, and comes 
forth an eight-legged mite 
to spend the winter, a part 
of its food being locusts' 
eggs. In the spring, the 

females deposit from 300 to 400 eggs, which hatch out as young, six- 
legged mites, that attach themselves to some host, the one chiefly 
chosen being the locust. This is one of the most effectual enemies 
of the locust. It is familiar to all. Newspaper reports concerning 
locusts, this year, nearly always contained some reference to a ''little 
red bug found under the wings." 

Beetles. — Predacious beetles and the larva? of beetles are known to 
prey upon the egg-pods of this species. 

Flies. — Last fall, the numbers of this locust seen dead in the fields, 
destroyed by internal parasites, made me desirous of procuring an es- 
timate of the interruptions that parasites of this class cause. Accord- 
ingly, I collected a large number of living forms, retaining and feeding 
them «in closed boxes. I did the same again this year, collecting 130 
for this purpose. The computations upon these observations have 
appeared elsewhere, and are herewith given. 




Fig. 5. (Original.) Red mite, Trombidium locustarum, 
on membrane of wing of locust. 



32 GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 

PARASITIC INFLUENCES ON MELANOPLUS * 

The relation existing between the host and its parasite is an ever- 
interesting source of study from a biologic standpoint. Multiplied 
numbers of the former tend toward greater increase of the latter. 
When the parasites predominate, the individuals of the host tribe de- 
crease ; should the host disappear, the parasite must follow or adapt 
itself to new environments. Absence of the parasite grants license to 
the increase of the host. The prevalence of one is directly dependent 
upon the other. 

In order that an estimate of the influence of this condition upon 
Melanophis differ entialis might be gained, the writer, while conduct- 
ing the summer field-work of this department during the two seasons 
past, collected a number of the Differential Locust. Fifty were taken 
the first week of October, 1897 ; 130 were collected September 3, 1898. 
Twelve per cent, of those captured in 1897 had been parasitized by 
diptera. Of those taken in 1898, 20 per cent, had been attacked by 
parasitic diptera. When it is taken into consideration that the dates 
of capture were before the close of the active season of the parasites, 
and that by reason of capture and confinement, some of the locusts 
taken were doubtless saved from attack, the estimate can be regarded 
as conservative. The duration of observation and number of individ- 
uals considered will not yet allow favorable deductions to be made 
from the eight per cent, increase recorded this year. In localities 
where this locust was superabundant in October, 1897, the number of 
dead forms showing an unmistakable evidence of the work of dipter- 
ous parasites was nearly equal to those moving about. The number 
of Melanophis differ entialis that appeared in the same localities this 
season was equal to, if not greater than, those existing the year pre- 
vious. This species of locust has been of economic importance an- 
nually in those regions for some years past. This is, in a measure, 
due to the peculiarly favorable condition existing there, environments 
which appear to be highly suitable to the rapid multiplication of this 
species. The ultimate effect of parasitism upon Melanoplus differ- 
entialis with such surroundings is yet to be demonstrated. 

Observations on this subject will be continued by the department. 
It is the purpose of this paper to record the data observed and diptera 
concerned. Dr. S. W. Williston and Dr. Garry de N. Hough have very 
kindly examined the specimens bred. The descriptions and determi- 
nations of the Sarcophagidse made by Doctor Hough appear below, 
The description of the Tachinidse which appear to be new will shortly 
be given by Doctor Williston in a paper on the museum types of 
Tachinida?. 

-Kan. Univ. Quar., vol. vn, No. 4, Oct., 1898, series A, pp. 205-210. 



GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 



33 



Concerning the life-history of the diptera described in this article, 
the following notes have been made. Careful and continued watch- 
ing for the act and time of oviposition was not fully rewarded. Dur- 
ing the period of the last molt of Melanoplus differentialis, when 
frequently a dozen individuals could be seen ai one time in various 
stages of this change, the writer noted numbers of Sareophagidae flit- 
ting nervously over and about, alighting near the soft, viscid locust, 
then taking wing again. While no act of oviposition or darting 
downward was observed, as is the case with many parasitic Hymenop- 
tera when placing their eggs, it is the writer's opinion that some at 
least of the eggs are placed upon the locust at this time. This belief 
is strengthened by the fact that the insect during the molt is quies- 
cent, is soft, and lightly coated with a sebaceous fluid, and therefore is 
an easier prey and a greater attraction for parasitic flies in quest of a 
host than the active and fully chitinized insect. 





Fig. 6. (Original.) Different stages in transformation 
of Sareophagidae. ;, 3, /,, white maggot in active stage ; \ 
maggot beginning to pupate — dirty white in color; 5, pupa 
case, light brown ; ij, 7, fully developed pupa cases of two 
species. 



The lot of specimens from which Sarcophaga eimbicis was bred 
was collected on September 30, 1897; the larva came forth from the 
host four days later. It emerged October 23, 1897. The material 
from which Sarcophaga hunter i was bred was taken on September 1, 
1898. Three of these dipterous larvae pupated on the 3d, one on the 
6th, and the last of the five on the 9th of September. They emerged 
in the following order : Two on September 6, one on September 8, 
the remaining two, a male and female, now in Doctor Hough's collec- 
tion, hold the labels giving date of emergence, a copy of which I did 
not retain. There elapsed, however, in each case but a few days be- 
tween pupation and maturation. 

Sarcophaga eimbicis Town.; Can. Ent., vol. 24, pp. 126, 127, 1892. 

This specimen, a female, was determined by Doctor Hough 
from material in his collection. He wrote that the description 
by Townsend was not then accessible. Upon looking up the list 
—3 



34 



GRASSHOPPEKS IN GENERAL. 



of types in our collection, I found the material, a male and female, 
upon which Townsend based his description. A careful comparison 
with literature at hand, made by Doctor Williston, shows the three 
specimens to be without doubt identical. It is interesting to note, as 
showing the range of adapt ibility of this species, that the types were 
bred from cocoons of Limbex amerlcana. 




V-4 



f 



V 




Fig. 7. (Original.) Sarcophaga 
cimbicis Town. Female. Its own 
pupa case by its side. 



Fig. 8. (Original.) Sarcophaga 
hunteri Hough. Male. 



Here follows Doctor Hough's description : 

Sarcophaga (Tephromyia) hunteri now sp. Three males and two 
females, bred from Melanoplus diferentialis by Mr. 8. J. Hunter, 
in whose honor I have named it. Habitat, Kansas. 

Length, five and one-half to seven millimeters. Color, gray; the 
male rather brownish, the female whitish. Abdomen without the 
usual variable spots of a Sarcophaga, but with three black stripes — 
a median, and on each side a lateral. In the female the lateral stripes 
are quite faint, and can only be seen well with a favorable incidence 
of light. Anal segments gray, retracted within the fourth segment in 
the males. Palpi yellow to yellowish brown. Antenna? brown, with 
the apex of the second joint and the base of the third yellow to a 
varying extent. Squamune white. Wings grayish hyaline ; first 
longitudinal vein not spinose ; third spinose for two-thirds to three- 
fourths of the distance to the small cross-vein. Legs black; in the 
male more or less brownish gray pollinose ; in the female whitish 
gray pollinose. Hind tibia? of male not bearded. 

Head. — Front of male at narrowest point one-sixth the width of 
the head. From this point, which is about at the junction of the 
dorsal and middle thirds, the front widens both dorsad and ventrad. 
Front of female of uniform width, six-twentieths the width of the 
head. The exact measurements are: Male, front 0.4 mm., head 2.5- 
mm.; female, front 0.6 mm., head 2 mm. 



GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 35 

Antennae. — Third joint more than twice as long as the second. 
Arista fully as long as the second and third joints together, composed 
apparently of but two joints, of which the basal is very small and 
about as long as broad; the terminal tapering as usual (its basal and 
apical thirds black, its middle third whitish), and feathered for rather 
more than half its length with rather long, fine hairs. The yellow, or 
perhaps I should say reddish yellow, color is more extensive on the 
antennas of the female than of the male. 

The vibrissal angle is a little above the mouth edge, and slightly 
but distinctly narrows the clypeus. Dorsad the principal vibrissa, 
the vibrissal ridge is beset with small bristles its entire length. 
Ven trad the principal vibrissa are about three smaller vibriss;e. 

The dorso- ventral diameter of the bucca is one-third that of the 
eye. It is quite evenly beset with small bristles, which are larger 
toward the edge of the mouth opening, where they form a distinct 
bordering row. 

Macrocha?ta? of vertex, front, etc. Male : By far the largest of the 
vertical bristles is the inner vertical ; the outer vertical is scarcely if 
at all larger than the cilia of the posterior orbit. The greater ocellar 
are small; the lesser ocellar very small. Of the latter there are- 
several pairs, and they extend over upon the occipital surface of 
the head, beyond the post- vertical pair, which is small, snd very 
evidently a member of the ocellar group, The occipito- central is 
present, and is about as large as the post- vertical. There are two or 
three ascending and about eight decussating transverse frontals. The 
latter extend down upon the gena about as far as the apex of the 
second antennal joint. Upon the geno-plate laterad the frontals 
there are no large bristles, but an irregular row of exceedingly minute 
hairs, which begins at or a little dorsad of the middle of the geno- 
vertical plate and extends ventrad on the geno-vertical plate and on 
the gena nearly or quite to the ventral end of the latter. On the gena 
this row has a tendency to become double and the last three to five 
members of the anterior row are much larger than the rest, thus form- 
ing a rather prominent little group near the lower corner of the eye. 
The cilise of the posterior orbit are small, closely set, and well aligned. 
Parallel to them is a second distinct row of bristles of about the 
same size. 

Female : The bristles of the head of the female differ from those of 
the male as follows : The outer vertical is almost as well developed as 
the inner vertical. The transverse frontals number but five or six. 
The row of minute hairs on the geno-vertical plate and gena has a 
lesser tendency to become doubled on the gena. Two good-sized or- 
bital bristles are present. 




36 GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 

Thorax. — The thorax is striped as is usual in Sarcophagcs. The 
stripes are very distinct in the male, and quite faint in the female. 
The chaetotaxy of the thorax is alike in the 
two sexes, and is indicated in the accompany- 
ing diagram. The female has a smaller num- 
ber of minute bristles than the male, and 
consequently its chsetotaxy is more easily 
made out. In the diagram I have indicated 

Fig. 9. _ b 

three posthumeral bristles. The two smaller 
ones are in but one specimen large enough to be distinguished from 
the other hairs or microchaetse. This variation of the posthumerals is 
common in Sarcophagce. 

Abdomen. — The macrocha3ta3 of the abdomen are marginal only. 
Each segment has a complete row. On the first and second segments 
they are all of insignificant size, except two or three at the lateral 
border. On the third segment all are of good size and they number 
twelve to fourteen. On the fourth segment all are of good size and 
they number fourteen to sixteen. 

The bristles of the legs are arranged as is usual in Sarcophagce. I 
can make out nothing worthy of special notice here. 

Wing. — First longitudinal vein not spinose. Third vein not spinose 
for two-thirds to three-quarters of the distance to the small cross- 
vein. Elbow of fourth almost exactly rectangular and provided with 
an apparent appendix, which, however, is not a stump of a vein but 
a slight fold or wrinkle of the wing. Hind cross-vein sinuous, longer 
than, but hardly twice as long as, that segment of the fourth vein be- 
tween it and the elbow. Hind cross-vein and apical cross- vein almost 
exactly parallel. 

This species belongs to Brauer's subgenus Tephromyia of Sarco- 
phaga ( sens, lat.) In this subgenus the vibrissal angles are distinctly 
above the mouth edge and, projecting somewhat mesad, distinctly 
narrow the clypeus. The abdomen does not have the changeable 
spots, macuhe spurise, of Sarcophaga, but is either unicolorous or 
marked with fixed spots or lines. The European species of this 
group are T. grisea Meig., T. lineata Fall., T affinis Fall., and T. 
obsoleta Fall. As far as I am aware hunteri is the first Tephromyia 
to be observed outside of Europe. Through the kindness of Hen- 
Paul Stein, of Genthin, Germany, I have now in my possession 
specimens of grisea, affinis and obsoleta. From these specimens and 
the accessible descriptions of lineata, I am able to construct the fol- 
lowing table for separating the species of this group. 



GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 'SI 

A. — Abdomen unicolorous, squamulae yellow, wings strongly yellow at base — 
grisea Meig. 

A A. — Abdomen with distinct black markings, squamulae not yellow, wings 
not strongly yellow at base. B. 

B.— Palpi black. C. 

C. — Each abdominal segment with a black dorsal line, and on each side with 
a narrow, oblique, black spot: these spots often united so that the abdomen pre- 
sents three black stripes. Front of male one-third the width of the head — line- 
aia Fall. 

CC. — First abdominal segment blackish; other segments each with a dorsal 
black line, and on each side with a large, irregularly shaped black spot. Front 
of male one-fifth the width of the head; of female, one-third the width of the 
he d — offlnis Fall. 

I?B. — Palpi yellow or brownish yellow. 

D. — Front of male one-fourth as wide as head: third antennal joint less than 
one and a half times as long as the second; no intra-alar bristle in front of the 
suture — obsoleta Fall. 

I)D. — Front of male one-sixth, of female less than a third, as wide as the 
head; third antennal joint more than twice as long as second, with an intra-alar 
bristle in front of suture — hunteri n. sp. 

Dr. S. W. Williston has kindly examined the Tachinidce, and will 
give descriptions in a paper upon Kansas university museum types of 
Tachinidce in a future number of the Kansas University Quarterly. 

Among these parasitic Diptera, the 
female fly deposits the eggs, some- 
times two, upon the back of the 
grasshopper, frequently when locust's 
wings are spread in flight. The egg 
soon hatches, and the larva feed 
until full-grown upon the locust's 
vitals. It comes forth as a white 
maggot; soon its skin turns brown 
and forms a hard pupa case, from 
which the flies above mentioned 

omovrro in arlnlt frvrrn in fv^.m +on Fig. 10. (Original.) Erax cinerascens. 

emerge in adUlt IOrni 111 from ten One and one-half times natural size. 

days to two weeks (see fig. (')). 

An Asilid fly, Erax cinerascens, was seen pouncing upon the young 
grasshoppers. 

Locust fungus, Empusa grilli Fres. This disease can be readily 
detected when present, by the general observer, by the numbers 
of dead locusts clinging to the tops of the alfalfa, weeds, or grass. 
On the 21st of July I found this fungus, for the first time this 
year, at work in one corner of a small alfalfa field three miles east of 
Syracuse, Hamilton county. The grasshoppers were very abundant 
upon this piece of ground. I returned to this place two weeks later, 
hoping to attain some valuable data upon the natural spread of this 




GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 



disease. This second visit showed 
that there had been no noticeable 
spread of the disease. Dead grass- 
hoppers, in about the same numbers, 
in practically the same corner of the 
field, were to be seen. I did not find 
the disease working in any other por- 
tions of this field. I found a few 
dead grasshoppers that had died from 
this disease in two spots in two dif- 
ferent alfalfa fields in Edwards 
county. In no place, however, did I 
note anything that could be in any 
way considered an epidemic, nor any 
evidences that would induce favor- 
able conclusions concerning this dis- 
ease as a valuable check to the 
increase of this locust. 

Observations Made in. Widely Sei^a- 
rated Localities. 

In the vicinity of St. Louis, Mis- 
souri, the first specimens of this lo- 
cust were observed to become winged 
July 19. Eggs were laid Septem- 
ber 9. As a deviation from the usual 
egg-laying habits of the genus, the 
eggs are sometimes very numerously 
placed under the bark of logs that 
have been felled on low lands. The eggs of this species, unlike those 
of spt'etus, atlanis, and femur-rubrum, are not quadrilin early but 
irregularly arranged. The head ends of the eggs in the pod point 
mostly outward. One hundred and seventy- five eggs have been 
counted in a single mass.* 

In California, they acquired wings from the last week in June to 
the last week in July, and began laying eggs July 23. A single 
female occupied seventy-five minutes in depositing an egg mass. The 
situation chosen for egg laying was invariably the edge of one of the 
basin-like hollows ( for irrigation ? ) at the foot of a tree. This locust 
is not easily startled; its ordinary flight is rather heavy, and sus- 
tained only for a distance of twelve to thirty feet.f 




Fig. 11. (Original.) Melanoplus dif- 
ferential's killed by fungus. On Golden- 
rod. 



* Riley, Summary from First Report U. S. Ent. Com. 
t Coquillett, Report Dept. of Agr. 1885, pp. 295, 296. 



GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 39 

This insect has very frequently multiplied in such numbers in 
limited areas over its range as to do considerable injury to cultivated 
crops growing upon low, moist ground; and has even been known 
very frequently to spread over higher and dryer lands adjoining these, 
its customary haunts. It is one of the few species of locusts that has 
thus far shown a tendency toward civilization. This it has done 
readily, since its habits are in unison with the cultivation of the soil. 
It is only since the settlement of the country where it originally 
occurred that it has multiplied so as to become sufficiently numerous 
to become a serious pest. 

The eggs are laid in cultivated grounds that are more or less com- 
pact, preferably old roads, deserted fields, the edges of weed patches, 
and well-grazed pastures adjoining weedy ravines. Egg laying begins 
about the middle of August and continues into October, varying, of 
course, according to latitude and climatic conditions. Usually, but 
not always, only a single cluster of eggs is deposited by each female. 
Frequently there were two, and in extreme cases perhaps even three, 
of these clusters deposited by a single female.* 

ANATOMY. 

It is believed that a brief general discussion accompanied by fig- 
ures of the Differential Locust, Melanoplus differential Is, will be of 
practical value. Such a treatise will enable the farmer to understand 
more readily the direct action of the external and internal remedies 
used. 

External Anatomy. A word, in beginning, concerning skeletons. 
These are of two kinds : skeletons within the body and surrounded by 
muscles, and those without the body, having all muscles on the in- 
terior. The skeletal structure of man comes under the first class ; 
the rigid outer structure of insects under the second class. Every one 
who has studied human physiology remembers, among the first topics, 
"Uses of the Skeleton/' and if he were permitted to use another's lan- 
guage, instead of his own, he would say, in answer: "To protect the 
delicate organs, to furnish attachment for the muscles, to give form to 
the body, to furnish levers for the movements of the body/' And, if 
this same scholar was to take up comparative anatomy later, he would 
find that the skeleton of the grasshopper serves identically the same 
purposes as the human skeleton. The integral parts of the human 
skeleton we call bones; the separate pieces of the grasshopper skele- 
ton we term sclerites; that constituent which gives bones their firm- 
ness we commonly speak of as lime ; that which lends rigor to the 

* Brimer, Report of Ent. to Neb. St. Bd. of Agr., 1896, pp. 120, 121. 



40 



GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 




sclerite is a horny substance called chitine 
An examination of the body wall shows it 
to be composed of a number of distinct 
pieces, or sclerites; the lines separating 
these pieces are known as sutures. Su- 
tures here, just as in the anatomy of the 
human skull, are not freely movable joints. 
The term, "joint," is reserved for those 
artieulalations where free motion is per- 
mitted, as is the case at the connections of 
the parts of the locust's leg. 

An examinination of the whole body 
will readily show three divisions — the 
head, thorax, and abdomen. The head, 
apparently one piece, contains the mouth, 
eyes, and the long horns, known as an- 
tennae; the thorax is the heavy central part 
of the body, furnishing attachments for the 

wings and legs; the abdomen is the slender 

portion extending backward from the base of 

hind wings. 

The head. — The accompanying figures show 

the head with mouth closed (fig. 12), but upper 

lip, labrum, removed to reveal comparative size 

of jaws and head. Fig. 13, with mouth open, 

illustrates the tongue, hypupharynx in the 

center, mandibles, and part of the maxillae on 



Fig. 12. (Original.) Front view 
of head, with clypeus and labrum 
removed to show mandibles in 
position, a, antenna; b, ocelli; 
B, compound eye; f, mandible; 
d, maxilla; e, maxillary palpus; 
/'.labium; g, labial palpus. En- 
larged about five times. 




Fig. 16. (Original.) Cly- 
peus and labrum. Enlarged 
about five times. 




Fig. 13. (Original.) Front view 
of head, with mandibles spread 
out. c, mandible; d, maxilla; e, 
maxillary palpus; /, labium; </, 
labial palpus; //, hypopharynx. 
Enlarged about five times. 



each side beneath mandibles. With such 
tools and the power to use them, is it to be 
wondered that this insect is omnivorous. 

The compound eyes, one on each side of 
the head, are the most conspicuous divi- 
sions of the head. Their surface is made 
up of a large number of hexagonal plates. 
Each of these plates forms the surface cov- 
ering for a simple eye admitting but one 
ray of light. The compound eye is but a 
collection of these simple eyes. 

The simple eyes. — Just above the base 
of each antenna can be found a small 
simple eye ; between the bases of the horn- 
like antennae is another simple eye. 

The many jointed antenna' extend from 



GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 



41 





Fig. 15. (Original.) In- 
ner view of maxilla. Lr, 
lacinia ; gl, galea ; p, pal- 
pus; rn, membrane. En- 
larged about five times. 



Fig. 14. (Original.) Labium. 
g, gula ; &', submentum ; M, menl 
turn; Py, palpiger; Lp, labia- 
palpus. Ligula consists of the 
two flaps below mentum. En- 
larged seven and one-half times. 



A. 



the upper part of the face. The clypeus and 
upper lip (lahruni) arc drawn in full in fig- 
ure 16. The powerful toothed mandibles are 

shown open and 
closed (figs. 12, 13). 
The movements of 
the mandibles are 
confined to the lat- 
eral action from the 
median line outward 
and back a.u;ain. 

Just behind them are the smaller, more 
strongly toothed maxillae, with appendages. 
These are drawn and described in figure 15. 
Between the maxilla?, and rising from the 
back wall of mouth, is the tongue-like 
organ known as hypopharynx. The under 
lip (labium) is shown as it appears from 
the back of the head. Its subdivisions are 
given with figure ( fig. 14). The large scle- 
rite composing the front part of the head, 
in which are situated compound eyes, sim- 
ple eyes, and antenna?, is known as the 
epicranium. The upper part is called 
the vertex, the anterior portion the front, 
and the sides, extending downward from 
the compound eyes, the cheeks or gence. 

The thorax con- 
sists of three 
divisions — the 
prothorax, bear- 
ing the front 

pair of legs ; the mesothorax, bearing the 
front wings and the middle pair of legs ; 
the metathorax, bearing the hind wings 
and last pair of legs. 

The prothorax is made most conspicu- 
ous by the pronotum — the large sun- 
bonnet-shaped piece covering the back 
— extending out over the back of meso- 
thorax and covering the greater portion of 
the sides of the prothorax as well. The 
subdivisions of the hood are given beneath 




Fig. 17. (Original.) Side view of 
thorax. Enlarged three times. 




A, Mesothorax. 
a, parapteron. 
6, episternum. 
e, epimeron. 
d, wing. 



B, Metathorax. 
b', episternum. 
c', epimeron. 
<!' , wing. 



Fig. 161. (Original.) Side view 
of prothorax with leg. ", pw- 
scutum ; b, scutum ; c, scutellum : 
(/, post scutellum ; e, episternum ; 
m, membrane, connecting head 
with prothorax, containing the 
jugular sclerites ; /, coxa of leg ; 
g, trochanter; f>, femur; ?, tibia; 
j, tarsi ; k, pulvillus and two 
claws. Enlarged three times. 



42 GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 

figure 16|. The sternum of the prothorax is a solerite having a 
small tubercle situated between the front legs. On the membrane 
connecting head and prothorax, on each side underneath the prothorax, 
are a pair of sclerites looking somewhat like two links in a chain ; 
these are called the jugular sclerites. They are represented in fig- 
ure 16i, as is also the episternum of the prothorax and prothoracic leg. 
Mesothorax. — The middle part of the thorax, when viewed from 
above, shows the front wings (tegmina) and mesonotum between the 
wings (fig. 19). The mesonotum consists of two subdivisions — the 
scutum occupying the front half and scutellum the back half of this 
division. The form of each is shown in figure 19. From the side can 
be seen two sclerites named and referred to in figure 17, also the place 
of attachment of the middle leg. The ventral portion (mesosternum) 




Fig. 18. (Original.) Metathoracic, or jumping leg. c, coxa ; tr, trochanter ; /, femur ; 
ti, tibia ; la, tarsi ; p, pulvillus and two claws. Enlarged four times. 

of the mesothorax is a large, flat, nearly rectangular piece, having the 
corresponding sclerite of the metathorax dovetailed into its caudal 
margin (fig. 20). 

Metathorax. — This part resembles both in structure and function 
the mesothorax. Reference to figures 17, 19, 20, will give names 
of parts and appearances in structure. Between the mesothorax and 
metathorax, on the side just above the leg socket, is the largest open- 
ing in the body for the transmission of air. These openings are called 
spiracles. See figure 27 for illustration of structure and position. 

Appendages of the thorax. — These are the legs and wings. The 
first and second pair of legs are used in walking and grasping ; the 



GRASSHOPPERS IX GENERAL. 



43 



third pair in walking and jumping. The function of the third pair 
differs, and yet the parts of each are the same, and these are given, 
together with their relative forms, in figure 18. 

The wings differ in structure 
and texture. The front wings (teg- 
mina) are large, narrow, and retain the same form 
whether in flight or at rest. The hind wings, 
when not in use, are folded like fans and rest 
under the tegmina. 

The membrane of the wings is supported by 
longitudinal veins and short cross-veins. 

Abdomen. — The first abdominal segment fits 
accurately into a notch in the metasternnm 




B. 





Fig. 19. ( Original.) Dorsal aspect of body (female). A , head ; 
7, antenna; 8, epicranium ; 3, compound eye. B, prothorax : ». 
praescutum ; b, scutum ; c, scutellum ; d, post scutellum. C, mes- 
onotum; sc, scutum; gel, scutellum; w, tegmina or wing cover. 
D, metanotum ; sc, scutum; scl, scutellum; w, wing. E, abdo- 
men; 7, 8, S, i, 6. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, segments; aud, auditory organ ; 
.v/j, spiracles; c, cerci ; p>>, podical plates ; o, ovipositor. Enlarged 
about three and a half times. 

( figs. 20, 21 ) . On the upper half of each side < >f 
this first segment is a large opening covered with 
a delicate membrane (figs. 21. 24). These are the 
auditory organs. The membrane is the tym- 
panum. In fig. 24 the auditory organ is enlarged. 
The margin is the thickened tympanum. The dark structure at the 
right on tympanum is the cone-shaped prominence which is situated 
just beneath the tympanum. The dark spot near center is the trian- 
gular chamber situated just beneath the tympanum. 

Just in front of each auditory organ is a spiracle (figs. 21, 24). The 
next seven segments contain breathing spores ( spiracles ) on the 



44 



GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 



sides, at points indicated in fig. 21. The 
exact use of these will be more fully dis- 
cussed later. 

Beginning with the ninth segment, the 
abdomen is modified, and in the structures 
which follow are to be found the charac- 
teristics which distinguish the sexes. In 
the female the four long, horny-tipped ovi- 
positors are prominent. How such small 
instruments can execute so much work, is 
a matter not easily explained. Their uses 
were discussed under "Life-History." A 
better idea of these parts and relative forms 
than can be given in words will be found in 
fig. 21. The terminal part of the abdomen of the male ( figs. 22, 23 ) 
shows, instead of extended ovipositors, a blunt, hood-shaped sclerite, 
turning up over that end of the body like the prow of a barge. The 




Fig. 20. (Original.) Ventral 
view of thorax. Pro. St., pro- 
sternum ; Meso. St., mesoster- 
num; Mela. St., metasternum. 
Enlarged about three times. 




Fig. 21. (Original.) Side view of abdomen ( female). 
1. ';•'. ;. ", '•', ?, S,9, 10, 11, segments ; Sp. spiracles; and, 
auditory organ; o, ovipositor; pp, podical plates; 
c, cerci ; /, forked organ. Enlarged about three times. 




Fig. 22. (Original.) 
Side view of male. 7, 
S, 9, 10, 11, segments ; e, 
cerci. Enlarged about 
three times. 



cerci are more prominent than in the female. The abdomen of the 
male, though consisting of the same number of segments, is generally 
shorter than the abdomen of the female. 



Internal Anatomy. An ilea of the internal workings of these 
grasshoppers will be of value, and will throw some light upon its hab- 
its and the effects of poisons upon it. This locust 
agrees with higher forms ot life in having a circu- 
latory, respiratory, digestive, reproductive and ner- 
vous system. It is believed that the subject can 
be best explained under such heads, with reference 
to figures illustrative of the same. 

Digestive system. — The digestive system begins fig. 23. (Original.) 
with the masticatory organs of the mouth, previ- appendages ° f f Tail! 
ously shown (figs. 12 to 16). The food is here me nts S ;' l\ cerci.'' En- 
masticated and mingled with the saliva secreted by jffi? about three 




GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 



i:. 



glands lying under the esophagus. From the esophagus it passes 
into the crop. The food then enters the gizzard-like proventriculus ; 

the inner walls of this are lined with chitinized processes which, by a 
series of contractions, grind up the food and pass it on into the 
stomach proper. Lying alongside of this 
stomach, and connected to it, can be seen on 
each side three long tubes. These are called 
gastric pouches (ceca). because it is believed 
that they secrete a fluid which corresponds to 
the gastric juice, and this fluid enters the 
stomach to perform functions similar to that 
carried on by the gastric juice. 

The food after leaving the stomach passes 
into the intestines, the upper part of which is 
called the ileum and the lower part the colon. 
At the forward end of the ileum can be seen a 
large number of tubes (malphigian tubes) run- 
ning backward. These are believed to perform the same functions as 
the kidneys do in the higher animals. While the food is in the 
stomach, and as it passes through the ileum and colon, it is believed 
that the nutritive portions oozing through the walls of this digestive 
tube enter the circulation. The waste material is carried off through 
the colon. 

Circulatory system. — In this locust there are no arteries and no 
veins. The circulatory system, as far as organs are concerned, is com- 
prised of what we are wont to call the heart. This organ is a tube 




Fig. 21. (Original.) Ex- 
terior view of auditory or- 
gan; Sp. spiracle. Enlarged 
about fifteen times. 




iVous Sjsl^ 



Fig. 25. (Original I. Digestive, circulatory and nervous systems. 
9, 10, 11, 12, segments; a-a, digestive tract; H, hypopharynx; Lb, labium; Lm, labrum ; 
Lp, labial palpus ; mp, maxillary palpus ; <K, esophagus : pp, ovipositors ; en, egg guide ; 
co, colon ; r, rectum. The heart is an open tube running along the back ; it is so marked, 
but not easily shown. Enlarged three times. 



extending from about the tenth segment of the abdomen up into the 
head. This tube has valves along its sides which admit of entrance 
of food and do not allow that which has entered to escape until it 
passes out of the main opening at the end of this organ in the head. 
This leads us to make a few remarks concerning the blood of insects. 



46 GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 

The blood of insects differs from that of other animals in having no 
red corpuscles. It is a thin fluid and, being a mixture of blood and 
chyle, usually colorless, but sometimes yellowish or reddish. It is 
carried forward by this tube or heart to the front end, and then flows 
back, nourishing the organs as it passes, and likewise coming in con- 
tact with tracheas, which are everywhere present in the body. When 
in contact with these trachea?, action similar to that in the human 
lung takes place. More will be said upon this phase of the subject 
under the head of the " Respiratory system." It will be seen that 
the chief function of this heart is to conduct forward newly made 
blood and unused blood from the back end of the body, pour it out at 
the front end of the body, and allow it to flow back like a river in its 
course. This action of the heart can be seen with the naked eye in 
some caterpillars with light color and delicate skin, when held be- 
tween the observer and the sun. 




Fig. 26. (Original.) Respiratory system, up., spirac'es, showing tracheae permeating all parts 
of the body ; A', air sacs. Enlarged three times. 

Resplrator}i system,. — This insect, instead of having one portion of 
the body set apart for the purification of the blood, similar to ani- 
mals possessing lungs, may be said to have lungs all over its system ; 
that is, there are trachea? branched and branched until they cover 
every part of the system and extend to every organ in the system. 
These trachea? do not depend upon the mouth for their supply of air, 
but are connected with the body wall direct, the outer portion of this 
connection being known as spiracles (figs. 21, 27). These spiracles 
have valves and openings which close and open at intervals, allowing 
free interchange of air. The tracheae which run from these spiracles 
are membranous tubes, which do not collapse because they are kept 
open by continuous rings of cartilage similar, though on a much smaller 
scale, to the cartilage in the windpipe of those animals bearing lungs. 
In addition to carrying to all parts of the body, it would seem that 
this distribution of air within the body tends to make the insect 
lighter and more capable of flight, In addition to these tracheae,. 



GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 



47 







/ 



Fig. 27. (Original.) Side view, 
showing spiracle of mesotliorax with 
spiracle enlarged. 



however, there are organs es- 
pecially made to assist in 
buoying the insect when on 
the wing. These are com- 
monly known as air sacs, and 
connect with the spiracles as 
shown in the figure (fig. 26). 



Reproductive system. — Fig. 25 shows the reproductive organs of 
the female, when not laden with eggs. It consists of an ovary. e,u,u- 
duct, and receptacle for the fertilizing fluid. Fig. 28 shows the ovary 
of the female just a few days previous to the time of oviposiiion. It 




Fig. 28. (Original.) Reproductive system of female. Large egg sac lying above stomach ; ovi- 
duct leading out above egg guide ; r, rectum ; a-a, digestive tract. Enlarged three times. 

is believed that, in these insects, each egg is fertilized in passing from 
the ovary out through the egg duct. The number of eggs that the 
ovary of this insect will contain averages about 100. 

Nervous sy stem. — The nervous system is shown in Fig. 25. It con- 
sists of a series of ganglia, or collections of nervous matter, situated 
under the digestive canal. These ganglia are arranged along the body 
just next to the digestive tract. They are placed two together, and 



48 GRASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 

these pairs, three pairs in the thorax and five pairs in the abdomen, 
are joined to each other and to the ones of the corresponding side by 
a cord of nerve tissue known as a commissure. This forms a double 
chain from the back part of the body up to the head, where a nerve 
band is formed around the esophagus ; on the top of the esophagus 
are to be found the two largest ganglia in the body of the insect. 
These two ganglia found above the esophagus might be looked upon 
as the brain proper. From these there go out branches of nerves to 
the eyes, to the antennae, to the maxilla and mandibles, and other 
parts of the face. 

MEASURES OF PREVENTION. 

It is stated in sacred writ that there may come a time in the life of 
a man when the grasshopper shall be a burden. While this prophecy 
referred to the closing days of a man's life, it is evident that under 
certain conditions the grasshoppers might become a burden before 
man will have reached the time when the grinders cease because they 
are few. To avoid this burden, then, is a matter which will interest 
every one concerned, and to this subject we will now devote our at- 
tention, under the head of "Measures of Prevention"; and in this 
connection we will not discuss remedies in general, but those which 
we have actually tried in the localities interested, and which have 
proven most successful. We are glad to say that our experience has 
shown that in the cases under observation it is not by killing two 
birds with one stone, but rather three birds, instead of two, have 
been hit with the same missile. 

As before stated, the conditions which favor the rapid multiplica- 
tion of this species are, the soil undisturbed by cultivation, and food- 
plants which send forth nourishing vegetation early in the spring. 
These conditions are to be found in Kansas wherever alfalfa is sown 
and not cultivated thereafter, and where the small grain, such as bar- 
ley and wheat, are sown without the ground being previously stirred. 
Wherever we have found these conditions we have found this species 
of grasshopper in burdensome numbers, together with other kinds of 
locusts in lesser numbers. 

In the first place, I should like to call the attention of those inter- 
ested to the subject of the value of cultivating wheat ground before 
sowing the seed. In making this suggestion, I am fully aware there 
is an opinion prevalent in the western part of this state that more 
wheat can be raised upon ground into which the seed has been placed 
without previous preparation than upon the same ground after having 
received some cultivation. While I am aware that this belief of the 
farmers is based upon observation covering several years, I believe 
that observations proving the contrary can be found. 



ORASSHOPPERS IN GENERAL. 49 

In substantiating this statement. I refer to a tract of. land near 
Groodland, Kan., the circumstances of which were related to me by 
Mr. Wm. Walker and Mr. G. L. Calvert, both of Goodland. This 
piece of land produced this year thirty-five bushels to the acre, and 
gave a quality of wheat that tested sixty-three pounds to the bushel. 
A number of pieces of wheat in the same locality were seeded by sow- 
ing in the stubble and gave only nominal yields. In this connection, 
it might be well also to mention the Campbell soil-culture method, 
which consists largely of thoroughly cultivating the upper layer of 
the soil and then thoroughly packing the same. Very favorable re- 
ports have been received concerning the results derived from this sys- 
tem of tilling the soil. And further, I am glad to make an extract 
here from a letter received from Hon. B. A. McAllaster, land commis- 
sioner of the Union Pacific railway. The extensive landed interests 
of Mr. McAllaster bring him in contact with many different soils, 
different climates, and different methods of culture. These facts make 
him speak advisedly when he says : 

Union Pacific Railroad Company, Land Department, 
Omaha, Neb., August 18, 1898. 
Dear Sir — I am particularly impressed with the statement made by you in 
the latter part of the paper, to the effect that the action of western farmers in 
not plowing their land except in periods of three to five years apart, is one of the 
principal causes for the increase of grasshoppers. It is and has been my opinion, 
very frequently expressed, that the crop failures in the western part of the state, 
which have been experienced during the past few years, are to a considerable 
extent due to this failure to properly plow and cultivate the land. It seems to 
me that a farm should be plowed every year in western Kansas, just the same as 
it is in other parts of the universe, and if, as alleged by the farmers as an excuse 
for their methods out there, the plowing of the ground allows the seed to be 
blown away by the high winds, that could be overcome by rolling the ground 
after plowing, or by using a subsurface packer. I believe that if I were a west- 
ern farmer, I would prefer taking my chances of seed being blown away, rather 
than having the crop eaten up by the grasshoppers. Yours truly, 

B. A. McAllaster, Land Commissioner. 

The reader is also referred to the letters of Mr. C. J. Momyer, on 
page 15, and Mr. D. A. Long, on page 17, for opinions upon soil cul- 
ture in western Kansas. 



GRASSHOPPERS AND ALFALFA. 51 

The subject of prevention, then, will be considered under two di- 
visions, methods of cultivation and means of destruction. 

ALFALFA CULTURE. 

Since it has been shown in the previous pages of this publication 
that the conditions essential to the production of large numbers of 
these native grasshoppers are two in number: an undisturbed soil for 
the safe retention of the eggs, and an early food-plant for the nourish- 
ment of the young insect, every one who is familiar with an alfalfa 
field will readily see that in this field are two conditions which are 
highly adaptable to the production of these insects. 

The problem which faced this department when attention was 
called to the subject two years ago was, how to disturb the solidity of 
the alfalfa field, destroy the eggs of the grasshoppers, and yet main- 
tain the integrity and life of the plant. This is the problem which 
was not readily solved, and after a solution was presented it did not 
find ready acceptance. 

The mode of procedure was as follows : It was already known that 
the alfalfa plant has a long tap-root, which extends many feet beneath 
the surface : and experiments showed that this root could be chopped 
and split at the top, and yet the life of the plant maintained with the 
same degree of vigor. The attention of the farmers had been called 
to this fact, and they Were strongly urged to disturb the soil of their 
alfalfa fields with the disk harrow. Many were influenced to do this. 
but some were of the opinion that the fields would be injured by the 
process. A further discussion of the subject may be better set forth 
by giving a detailed account of the work carried on upon the land 
where the experiments of this department were conducted. Early in 
March, 1898, Mr. J. H. Smart, following instructions, caused disk 
harrows to be run over 160 acres of alfalfa ground belonging to the 
firm of Ball & Goddard. for whom he is superintendent. I have asked 
Superintendent Smart to give a brief statement of his work, manner 
of conducting the same, and his opinion upon the results. Believing 
that the same will be of great value to those interested, I have caused 
it to follow : 

Alfalfa, Irrigation and Land Company, 
Cattle Breeders and Dealers, Kinsley, Kan. 

The good effect of cultivation as applied to alfalfa has been very apparent 
this year on the land of the Alfalfa, Irrigation and Land Company, situated in 
Edwards and Ford counties, and operated by H. E. Ball, of Topeka, Kan. In 

Description of Plate V. — First crop of alfalfa ; windrow in immediate fore- 
ground. This ground was thoroughly disked in March. For details, see Supt. 
J. H. Smart's letter, above. Land in Ford county. (Photographed by Hunter 
on July 23, 1898.) 



52 GRASSHOPPERS AND ALFALFA. 

March, 1898, we started two teams, disking 160 acres of alfalfa in Ford county. 
The harrow had twenty-inch disks and was set to cut about three and one- 
half inches deep, as an experiment. We afterward ran a light small-toothed 
harrow over the ground to level it after the disking. After this harrowing, the 
ground had the appearance of a wheat field that had been plowed very shallow. 
Almost immediately the good effect of the cultivation commenced to show, and 
so continued until the present time, not alone in the increased yield of alfalfa, 
but by destroying the native grasses which had not been entirely subdued when 
the seed was sown. I am of the opinion that the proper time to cultivate is early 
in the spring, while the ground is mellow, after the winter freezing, and the plant 
has not started to grow. The cutting up of the ground at this season of the year 
also exposes all the eggs of the insects to the action of the early frosts. This is very 
noticeable on this particular field, as there was not one-sixth as many 'hoppers 
as on an adjacent tract of an equal area, sown in the same season by the same 
party, and treated in every particular the same, with the exception of the disk- 
ing given the former in the spring. The yield was one-third more and of a bet- 
ter quality than the land that received no cultivation. There was no bad effect 
on the plant to be noticed, such as cutting off the crown of the plant. It seemed 
to do it good. The yield of the second crop was a decided surprise. We will 
continue the disking of our alfalfa fields this winter and early spring. I will disk 
a part of the same quarter-section this spring that we did last spring, and note 
the effect. In addition to increase of yield and absence of grasshoppers, this field 
was very noticeable on account of being clear of weeds and free from native 
grasses. J. H. Smart, Assistant Superintendent. 

My own observations upon this quarter-section I have endeavored 
to record, not only by means of words, but by photographs taken at the 
time, plates of which were made, and appear as plates i, v, and vi, with 
detailed descriptions given. The first crop averaged in height twenty- 
nine inches ; stalks of extreme length were found thirty-three inches. 
This first crop was marked by an evenness in height of growth, and by 
the remarkable freedom from the presence of native grasses and 
noxious weeds. The second crop, however, appeared to me to show 
by far the more striking benefits derived from disking the ground, 
and, for an idea of it, I should like the reader to return to plate I, 
and note the height and luxuriance of the growth. This second crop 
averaged in height twenty-eight inches ; stalks of thirty-two inches 
were found. I should like to say further, that the photographs were 
taken from different places in the field, and that one place in the 
field appeared to be equally as good as the other, with the exception 
of a low swale, where the ground was poor and non-productive. Con- 
cerning this second crop, it is not an exaggeration to say that, in 
thirteen counties traversed, I saw nowhere, under any conditions, a 
second crop of alfalfa which excelled the one upon this ground. It 
is of more striking interest to note that this crop was brought to 
maturity and harvested with no appreciable loss on account of grass- 
hoppers, while two quarter-sections near by, of the same kind of soil, 
gave neither a first nor a second crop on account of the prevalence of 



GRASSHOPPERS AND ALFALFA. 53 

grasshoppers. Here it seems to the writer is an excellent example of 
the old expression, "killing two birds with one stone.*' The destruc- 
tive influences of grasshoppers are removed, and at the same time and 
by the same work the yield is made more certain and of much greater 
quantity. Nothing was so convincing of this effect as a look over a 
quarter-section thus treated, and that this view might lie given the 
reader, plates numbers i, v and vi are produced. 

At the close of the season, I asked Superintendent Smart for an 
estimate of the yield of the alfalfa land under his care. His state- 
ment I will give verbatim : "In regard to the yield of alfalfa on our 
lands, I will say that the first crop raised on land that was disked was 
about one and one-fourth tons per acre, and the second crop, one ton 
per acre. We have harvested on our lands in Edwards and Ford 
counties, the past year, about 2500 acres, and the average yield for the 
first crop was three-fourths of a ton per acre, and the second crop, 
one-half ton." 

Of farther interest will be the wide experience of Superintendent 
Watson upon this subject; I have deemed it advisable to ask him to 
give his views, and these are as follows : 

Alkalfa, Irrigation and Land Company, 
Land Dei\\ rtment. 
I have been intimately connected with alfalfa culture in western Kansas for 
five years and have had charge of the seeding of 4000 acres. The advantages 
and profits arising from this crop are inestimable. No forage-plant is better 
adapted to the soil of the Arkansas valley than is alfalfa. I have observed, how- 
ever, in recent years, a prevalence of native grasshoppers. The cause of their 
increase was not clear to me until my attention was called to their appearance in 
alfalfa fields, and that in territory away from alfalfa they were not so trouble- 
some. For instance, I had a half-section of land on the high prairie in cultiva- 
tion for eight years, and grasshoppers gave no trouble whatever. Four years 
ago I sowed twenty acres of alfalfa upon this tract. This year the grasshoppers 
caused damage to alfalfa seed crop and damaged forty acres of wheat joining. I 
am glad, however, to say that it has become evident that a better degree of culti- 
vation will not only remove the grasshoppers, but also increase the quality and 
quantity of alfalfa produced. The alfalfa lands disked, upon our ranches, ac- 
cording to instructions, have shown remarkable freedom from grasshoppers, and 
very satisfactory increase in the alfalfa yield. If farmers will cooperate in culti- 
vating their alfalfa fields in the early spring, and use the 'hopper catcher to 
capture any 'hoppers that may appear, it is very evident, since these are bred and 
die upon the same farm, that in a year or two there will be no further damage 
caused by them. Geo. W. Watson, Superintendent. 



DESTRUCTION OF GRASSHOPPERS. 55 



THE HOPPER-DOZER. 

See plates vn and vm, figs. 29 and 30. 

It has been shown that methods of soil culture which include the 
turning of the ground annually will destroy the locusts' eggs placed 
therein. It is evident, however, that some may escape and others 
hatch from undisturbed roadsides and pasture lands. To destroy 
these before the egg-laying time means not only a cessation of the 
damages caused by these, but also that every female killed causes a 
reduction of the number of young the following year to the amount 
of at least 100 individuals. 

The simplest and most effectual machine, the one used by the de- 
partment in its field-work this year, is commonly known as the hop- 
per-dozer. The plan of construction, it is believed, can be best 
set forth by means of a sketch, giving dimensions of material used 
and showing positions in which each part is placed. Hon. Thos. H. 
Ford, of Syracuse, kindly sent me the plan of the one made under our 
direction and successfully used by him this season, and this is here 
shown. This machine cost Mr. Ford, in complete form ready for use. 
five dollars. 

The pans are more readily constructed from two sheets of galvan- 
ized iron, and more easily handled. These pans should be two feet 
wide, four inches deep in front and eight inches at back. While it 
cannot be easily shown in the sketch, yet it must be understood 
that these pans are laid upon 1x4 boards previously nailed to run- 
ners. The height of the runners is not given, since that depends upon 
the height of crop to be protected. It is important that there be no 
timbers in front of pan, so that the front line of the pan may come in 
contact with the grain passed over. The insects then fall directly 
into the fluid. 

When the machine is ready for use, place two buckets of water and 
one-half gallon of coal-oil in each pan, and then drive back and forth 
across the end of the field where the grasshoppers are entering until 
you have filled the pans, remove insects, replenish with oil and water, 
and continue until the field is rid of the pest. 

There will Ibe many grasshoppers strike the sheet-iron back, drop 
into the pans and immediately jump out again. Those farmers who 
watched the experiments this year were at first of the opinion that the 
locusts that jumped out had jumped away "to live another day." The 
writer asked those interested to watch the insects and note the actions 



Description of Plate VI. — Photograph of the disked alfalfa field in Ford 
county, showing the alfalfa yield: in swath in foreground, in windrow in back- 
ground. Sand-hills in the distance. (Photographed by Hunter, July 2:5, 1898.) 



DESTRUCTION OF GRASSHOPPERS. 



57 




Fig. 29. (Original.) Plan for bopper-dozer. 

of a grasshopper that had jumped out. In every case the report was 
that the insect ''became sick and soon died/' In fact, persons going 
over fields where a day or so before the hopper-dozer had been at work 
were impressed with the number of dead grasshoppers scattered about 
on the ground. An examination showed the presence of coal-oil upon 
the body. 

This coal-oil and water is an external irritant, and my observations 
have been that the mixture is more effective than the pure oil alone. 

The use of the machine may be best shown by examples. In Ford 
county this season a large tract of alfalfa was cut, and the locusts at 
once began moving into a large field of Kafir-corn which had been 
sown broadcast. The hopper-dozer was drawn back and forth across 
the end of the corn-field nearest the alfalfa land until a portion of the 
field about twenty rods deep had been gone over. Here it was appar- 
ent that then' were very few grasshoppers: or, in other words, the ad- 
vance line of the locusts' march only extended twenty rods into the 



Description of Plate VII.- Hopper-dozer at work on the ranch of Hon. 
Thos. H. Ford, Hamilton county. The photograph is taken in alfalfa field, 
which is being protected for seed crop. Quantity of grasshoppers just taken 
from pans can be seen in front of pans. This machine was made after instruc- 
tions of this department, except the 2x4 fourteen-foot extending forward by the 
side of each mule. These were added by Mr. Ford, and are of great value in 
steadying the machine. (Photographed l>y Cass.) 



DESTRUCTION OF GRASSHOPPERS. 



59 




Fig. 30. View in front of hopper-dozer, showing quantity of grasshoppers just taken 

from the pans. 

field. Two days later the same amount of ground was covered, but 
not as many insects were taken. Grasshoppers no longer entered this 
corn and the hopper-dozer was no longer used at this point. 

It has been my experience with this machine that after it has 
passed over vegetation it does not injure the plants, but in some way 
renders vegetation distasteful to the grasshoppers, so that they turn 
their course and seek food elsewhere. 

I have observed that these native grasshoppers enter a field from 
one corner or side, and that they are not as a rule scattered over the 
whole field, but occur in great numbers in patches. This being the 
case, it is evident that with very little labor with this machine the 
products of a field can be given full opportunity to mature. 

Mr. Ford, of Hamilton county, used this machine to protect the al- 
falfa seed crop. He did not stop, however, with guarding this field, 
but caught them wherever they were to be found. Some weeks after 
I left, Mr. Ford wrote me : "I am catching them whenever I get time, 
and I am now satisfied it is a solution of the urasshopper problem." 
The machine is much more efficient upon bright, warm days, when the 
insects are upon the vegetation and active, than upon cold, cloudy 
days, when the young locusts are resting sluggishly upon the ground. 



Description of Plate VIII. — Hopper-dozer at work in Kafir-corn on 
north ranch of Ball & Goddard, Edwards county. J. H. Smart, superintendent: 
Wm. Weber, foreman. Native grasshoppers had entered this corn from newly 
mown alfalfa field on the left, outside of view in picture. (Photographed by 
Hunter, July 20, 1898. ) 



60 GENERAL SUMMARY. 

In 1891, in Minnesota, more than 200 of these machines were 
made and used. It was estimated that 5000 bushels of young grass- 
hoppers were caught with these machines. 

SPRAYING. 

There is one crop which at the time of alfalfa harvest is too high 
for protection by means of the hopper- dozer ; that is the growing 
corn. This can be readily protected by driving along the outside 
corn rows and spraying the corn thoroughly with Paris green, one 
pound to sixty gallons of water. The insects entering will feed upon 
the leaves and die. These rows should be sprayed about once a week 
until the grasshoppers have disappeared. Having neglected to place 
in my equipment a spraying pump, I was unable to conduct experi- 
ments and note results. I give this as a remedy without trial, and be- 
lieve it will prove a sure destruction to all locusts entering the corn. 
The five or ten rows of corn thus sprayed had better be removed lie- 
fore the field is pastured. I see no reason, however, why the ears of 
corn when husked would be in any way dangerous. 

SUMMARY. 

Native grasshoppers require certain conditions for their increased 
multiplication. The grasshopper prevalent this year is frequently 
called the yellow locust, better known as the Differential Locust. 

Large areas of undisturbed soil for deposition and protection of 
eggs, attended by early spring vegetation for nourishment of newly 
hatched young, are the essential conditions. 

These native grasshoppers, especially the Differential Locust, show 
decided preference for cultivated ground and roads adjacent to places 
suitable for oviposition. This Differential Locust, contrary to suppo- 
sition, does not require soil entirely free from grasses for oviposition, 
but will sometimes deposit its eggs among the roots of a bunch of 
buffalo-grass. 

Wheat drilled in stubble or unplowed ground, alfalfa permitted to 
grow on the same undisturbed ground from year to year, furnish ideal 
surroundings for the welfare and productivity of native grasshoppers. 

Wherever these conditions are found, in any state in the union, 
native locusts will appear in numbers directly proportionate to the 
area containing their required conditions. 

Wheat, oats and barley were not disturbed this season in vicinities 
where large areas were devoted to alfalfa. 

Differences of opinion exist concerning the best methods of soil 
culture for wheat. If grasshoppers damage crop, thorough tilling 
and packing of the soil previous to sowing seed should be the only 
method used. Unless this is done, harvesters may be produced on 
the same ground who will reap the rewards. Crop profits are figured 
from the granary. 



GRASSHOPPER LAW. 61 

In alfalfa culture, if the grasshopper proves an incentive to proper 
cultivation, the insect is a blessing in disguise. 

Disking alfalfa fields in the early spring, after the frost has left the 
ground and before vegetation has well started, increases the yield of 
the first crop one-third; matures the second crop earlier, and brings 
from it an equally increased yield ; destroys the native grasshopper 
eggs placed therein, and kills the native grasses which frequently 
threaten to reclaim the field. 

The young grasshoppers that may hatch from undisturbed ground 
must be destroyed. They are raised upon the farm where found. 
The only way to go out of this kind of stock-raising is to kill all the 
stock. This can be readily done by means of the hopper dozer. The 
time to use this is as soon as the young insects begin to hop in the 
spring. Every female grasshopper killed means one hundred grass- 
hoppers less the next year. 

Contagious diseases and mortal enemies among the lower animals 
have thus far failed to keep these native locusts in check. It has 
been demonstrated that man can do it ; upon him rests the responsi- 
bility. Proper cultivation and vigorous and intelligent use of the 
hopper-dozer will free any farm of this locust, and the labor expended 
will be the best investment of the year. The greatest good, the per- 
manent reduction of this locust, can be brought about by the active, 
persistent cooperation of all concerned. 

GRASSHOPPER LAW. 

Below we print an extract from the General Statutes of Kansas re- 
lating to the destruction of grasshoppers, and found in volume 2 
(1897 edition), on page 939. 

Chapter 120, Session Laws of 1877. 

Sec. 5. In any senatorial district in the state of Kansas where trouble is 
anticipated from the ravages of young grasshoppers in the year 1877, and any 
subsequent year thereafter, it shall be lawful for the counties in said senatorial 
district to cooperate together in the way and manner herein provided for the 
destruction of the same. 

Sec. 6. The chairman of the board of county commissioners in the county 
having the largest number of inhabitants in a senatorial district, where two or 
more counties form said senatorial district, may notify the chairman of each of 
the boards of county commissioners of the remaining counties in said district of 
the time and place when the chairmen of the several boards of commissioners of 
the respective counties forming said senatorial district shall hold a joint meeting. 

Sec. 7. At such meeting two of their number shall be chosen to act as chair- 
man and secretary, and the proceedings of the meeting shall be published in all 
the newspapers printed in the senatorial district. 

Sec. 8. Said meeting shall designate the manner of procedure by road over- 
seers, and what day or days the young grasshoppers should be driven from the cul- 
tivated land onto the unburnt prairie or places of destruction, and shall also 



62 GRASSHOPPER BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

designate on what day or days the grasshoppers shall be destroyed, by burning 
or otherwise, in said senatorial district, giving at least ten days' notice of the 
same by jmblishing in the newspapers of the said district. 

Sec. 9. The board of commissioners of each county shall notify the road 
overseers of said county of the time fixed upon by the joint meeting for the driv- 
ing and burning, or destroying by other means, of the grasshoppers in the dis- 
trict: said notice to be given to said road overseers as soon as practicable after 
the same shall have been determined by the joint meeting. 

Sec. 10. Said road overseer shall immediately notify the residents of his road 
district of the time designated and the manner of procedure, in order to carry out 
the provisions of this act. He shall also specify what tools or implements will be 
required by each resident in performing the labor required by him; and such no- 
tice may be enforced the same as in the act authorizing road overseers to warn 
out the residents to perform road labor; and a refusal shall subject such persons 
refusing to the same penalties as are provided by law in such cases. 

Sec. 11. The road overseer shall direct the manner of performing the labor, 
and have the supervision of the same, and shall keep a list of the names of those 
who shall perform labor, and shall certify to the number of days' work performed 
by each, and shall place such certified list in possession of the board of county 
commissioners of his county. 

Sec. 12. It shall be lawful for two or more senatorial districts to cooperate 
together under the provisions of this act, on a basis of action which they may 
agree upon. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Melanoplus differentialis. 
Galoptenus differentialis. Uhler!, MS. (1863). Walsh, Riley, Amer., 
Ent., I (1868), p. 16; ibid., I (1869), p. 187. Thomas, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. 
Philad., 1871 ( 1871), p. 119. Glover, 111. N. A. Ent., Orth. (1872), pi. vm, fig. 
12, pi. ix, fig. 4, pi. xi, fig. 6. Thomas, Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv.'Terr., V (1873), 
p. 166, pi., fig. 5; Key 111. Orth. (1874-75), p. 3. Riley!, Ann. Rep. Ins. Mo., 
VII (1875), pp. 124, 173, fig. 33; ibid., VIII (1876), pp. 153, 154. Putnam, Proc. 
Dav. Acad. Sc, I (1876), p. 266. Thomas, Bull. 111. Mus. Nat. Hist., I 
(1876), p. 68. Whitman, Grasshopper (1876), p. 19, fig. Bruner, Can. Ent., IX 
(1877), p. 144. Bessey, Bienn. Rep. Iowa Agric. Coll., VII (1877), p. 209. 
Thomas, Rep. Ent. 111., VI ( 1877), pp. 44-45. Riley, Loc. Plague (1877), pp. 
89, 194, 198-201, fig. 34; Amer. Nat., XII (1878), p. 284; Rep. U. S. Ent. Comm., 
I (1878), pp. 220, 223, 225-226, 228, 298-299, 301, 327, 447, 459, figs. 32, 110, pi. iv, 
fig. 1. Thomas, ibid., I (1878), p. 42; Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., IV (1878), 
p. 500. Riley, Bull. U. S. Ent. Comm. Ill (1880), p. 39; Amer. Ent., Ill (1880), 
p. 220. Thomas, Rep. Ent. 111., IX (1880), pp. 91, 96, 127-128, fig. 24; Rep. U. 
S. Ent. Comm., II (1881), pp. 106-107. Lintner, Ins. Clover (1881), p. 5. Os- 
born, Amer. Nat., XVII ( 1883 ), pp. 1286-1287. Bruner, Rep. U. S. Ent. Comm. , 
III ( 1883), pp. 54, GO. Forbes, Rep. Ins. 111., XIV (1884), p. 23. Riley, Stand. 
Nat. Hist., II (1884), pp. 194-195, fig. 271. Osborn, Bull. Iowa Agric. Coll. Dep. 
Ent , II (1884), p. 83. Bruner, Rep. U. S. Ent., 1884(1885), p. 399. Riley, 
Amer. Nat., XX (1886), pp. 558-559. Cook, Beal's Grasses N. A., I (1887), p. 
373. Weed, Bull. Ohio Agric. Exp. St., Techn. Ser., I (1889), pp. 40-41. Lug- 
ger, Rep. Agric. Exp. St. Minn. (1889), p. 340, fig. 16. Osborn, Ins. Life, IV 
(1891), pp. 50, 51, 55; Rep. Ent. Soc. Ont., XXII (1891), pp. 70-73. Osborn, 
Goss, Bull. Iowa Exp. St., XIV (1891), p. 175; ibid., XV (1891), p. 267. Riley, 
Ins. Life, IV (1891), p. 145: Bull. Div. Ent. U. S. Dep. Agric, XXV (1891), pp. 
30-31, fig. 8. Osborn, ibid., XXVII (1892), pp. 59-60. Riley, Ins. Life, IV 
(1892), pp. 323,393,401. 



GRASSHOPPER BIBLIOGRAPHY. 63 

Acridium diffcrentlale. Thomas, Trans. 111. St. Agric Soc, V (1865), p. 150. 

C yrtacanthacris differentialis. Walker, Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mits.. IV 
(1870), p. 610. Thomas, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad., 1871 (1871), p. 119. 

Pezotettix differentialis. Stal, Bih. k. Sv. Vet.-Akad. HandL, V(1878), No. 
9, p. 11. Weed, Misc. Ess. Econ. Ent. 111. (1886), p. 18. Hunt, ibid. (1886), pp. 
122-123, 126. Weed, Rep. Ent, 111., XV (1889), p. 10. Garman, Orth. Kv. (1891), 
pp. 1, 8. 

Melanoplus differentialis. Bruner, Bull. Washb. Coll., I (1885). p. 139; 
ibid., I (1886), p. 200. Riley, Rep. U. S. Ent., 1885 (1886), p. 233. Coquillett, 
ibid.. 1885 (1886), pp. 295, 297. Bruner, Bull. Div. Ent. U. S. Dep. Agric. XIII 
(1887), p. 33: Rep. Ent. Nebr. Bd. Agric, 1888 (1888), p. 88, fig. 1. Comstock, 
Intr. Ent. (1888), pp. 108, 111, fig. 100. Smith, Bull. N. J. Exp. St., K. (1890), p. 
11. Bruner, Bull. Div. Ent. U. S. Dep. Agric, XXII (1890), p. 101. Blatch- 
ley, Can. Ent., XXIII (1891), p. 99. Bruner, ibid., XXIII (1891), p. 193: Ins. 
Life, III (1891), p. 229. Webster, ibid., Ill (1891), p. 300. Bruner, ibid , IV 
(1891), p. 22: Rep. Ent. Soc. Ont., XXII (1891), p. 18; Bull. Div. Ent. U. S. 
Dep. Agric, XXIII (1891), p. 11. Osborn, ibid., XXIII (1891), p. 59. Bruner, 
Rep. St. Bd. Agric. Nebr., 1891 (1891), pp. 213, 307, fig. 81. McNeill, Psyche, 
VI (1891), p. 71. Smith, Bull. N. J. Exp. St., XC (1892), pp. 1, 31, pi. i. Riley, 
Ins. Life, IV (1892), p. 393. Kellogg, ibid., V (1892), p. 116. Weed, Can. Ent., 
XXIV (1892), p. 278. Osborn, Proc. Iowa Acad. Sc, I, Pt. ii (1892), p. 118. Kel- 
logg, Inj. Ins. Kans. (1892), p. 12, figs. 22, 23a. Bruner, Bull. Div. Ent. U. S. 
Dpp. Agric, XXVII (1892), pp. 32-33; ibid., XXVIII (1893), pp. 15-17, fig. 5: 
ibid., XXX (1893), p. 35. Osborn, ibid., XXX (1893), p. 17. Bruner, Publ. Nebr. 
Acad. Sc, III (1893). p. 27: Rep. Nebr. St. Bd. Agric, 1893 (1893), p. 161. fig. 103. 
Osborn. Ins. Life, V (1893), pp. 323-321: Papers Iowa Ins. (1893), p. 58. Brunei;, 
Ins. Life. VI (1893), p. 31. Osborn, ibid., VI (1893), pp. 80-81. Bruner, Rep. 
St. Hort, Soc Nebr., 1891 (1891), pp. 163, 201, fig. 67; Bull. Div. Ent, U. S. Dep. 
Agric. XXXII (1891), p. 12: Nebr. St. Hort. Rep., 1895 (1895), p. 69: Nebr. St. 
Ag. Rep., 1896, pp. 120, 121, figs. 20, 21. Scudder, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 
XX, pp. 319-354, Pt, xxiii, figs. 3, 1, 1895 (1897). Snow and Hunter, Bull. Dept. 
Ent. Univ. Kans. Oct. 1897, pp. 9, 10, pi. n, fig. 1, 1897. Lugger, 3d Rep. of Ent. 
of Minn, for 1897 (1898), pp. 201-206, figs. 130, 131. 

technical description.* 

The largest of our species of Melanopli, and heavy bodied: excepting the hind 
legs and the lateral lobes of the pronotum, the general color is a nearly uniform 
brownish testaceous, becoming paler testaceous in specimens from arid regions: 
in those from Nebraska, Kansas and Colorado it is sometimes a blackish green, 
while in those from Illinois and Indiana it is of ten of a dark brownish green. 
The head has sometimes a pair of dusky, divergent stripes, passing from the pos- 
terior corners of the fastigium backward across the vertex, and when these are 
present there are often other but irregular streaks of similar tint on the gen;v and 
clouds over parts of the face ; the vertex is gently arched, more gently in t he female 
than in the male, with a broad interval between the eyes, the fastigium broadb- 
and not very deeply impressed: frontal costa broad but narrower than the inter- 
space between the eyes, percurrent, equal except for a slight expansion be- 
low, broadly and shallowly silicate below i and including) the ocellus, punc- 
tate; eyes moderately prominent, short, not a great deal longer than broad: 
antenna? fulvo- testaceous, nearly twice as long (male) or fully half as long 
again (female) as the pronotum. Pronotum subequal, the metazona ex- 

*S. H. Scudder, in Proc. Nat. Mus. Vol. XX, pp. :J50 :{52. 



(54 TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION. 

panding somewhat, the disk of the prozona sometimes ( but not always ) very 
feebly tumid, the front margin feebly convex, the hind margin obtusely and 
roundly angulate, more obtusely in specimens from the Pacific coast than in 
others, the median carina distinct and sharp on themetazona, less prominent but 
distinct on the anterior half of the prozom, still less distinct (occasionally sub- 
obsolete) between the sulci; prozona subquadrate in both sexes, smooth, divided 
in the middle, and barely before the middle of the posterior half, by sulci, the 
principal sulcus bent forward in the middle by the posterior emargination of the 
prozona, the metazona plane finely subruguloso-punctate ; lateral lobes nearly ver- 
tical, separated from the disl by a well-rounded angle nowhere forming distinct 
lateral carina?, marked next the upper limit on the proxona by broken blackish 
patches, frequently reduced to a pair of short, oblique black dashes, one in either 
longitudinal half of the prozona, each in a clearer field, and also by the black- 
ening of the sulci in this region. They are sometimes accompanied by slender, 
oblique, parallel black lines lower down, the hinder the lower: the pleural incis- 
ures are also heavily marked in black. Prosternal spine rather long, conical as 
seen from the side, bluntly cylindrical as seen from in front, a very little retrorse. 
Tegmina at least reaching (female) or distinctly surpassing (male) the hind 
femora, absolutely free from maculation, the narrowest apical portion about half 
as broad as the broadest subbasal portion; wings pellucid or (in darkest forms) 
very feebly infumated, feebly and narrowly opaque along the costal margin, the 
veins and cross-veins mostly brownish fuscous. Fore and middle femora of 
male heavily bullate, the hind femora stout and rather short, moderately 
tumid, generally fulvo- testaceous, sometimes flavo- testaceous beneath, the 
outer face with alternate, fulvo-testaceous and black, narrow, equal fish-bone 
markings, the black rarely interrupted in the middle, the upper inner face 
with small basal and large median and postmedian black patches, the gen- 
icular arc black on both inner and outer sides: hind tibiae yellow or ful- 
vous (occasionally in California bright coral red), with a postbasal narrow 
black annulus (in dark specimens more or less infuscated beyond it), the 
spines black to their very base, ten to eleven, rarely twelve, in number in the 
outer series. Extremity of male abdomen heavily clavate, the supra-anal plate 
subclypeate, obtusely angulate at apex, the margins feebly and broadly elevated 
and the median portion correspondingly elevated and bearing on its summit a 
moderately shallow, longitudinal sulcus, tolerably broad and subequal on the 
basal half, narrowing and with falling walls apically; furcula completely absent 
or indicated only by a thickening of the last dorsal segment at their proper posi- 
tion: cerci very large and coarse, laminate, boot-shaped, the basal half subequal, 
punctate and straight, beyond expanding and at the same time feebly bifurcate, 
the upper fork as long and more than half a-s broad as the base, feebly invurved, 
strongly upcurved, apically tapering slightly and well rounded, the lower fork at 
right angles to it, forming only a rounded, downward and posteriorly projecting 
lobe, so that the apical margin of the whole is deeply and roundly emarginate 
below, the whole surpassing a little the supra-anal plate: infracercal plates 
wholly obscured; subgenital plate short and broad, scarcely so broad apically as 
long: the apical margin thickened, but hardly otherwise either elevated or pro- 
longed, entire; upper valve of ovipositor abruptly upturned apically and sharp 
acuminate, the upper outer carina feebly serrate. 

Length of body, male 39 mm., female 41 mm. ; antennae, male 18 mm., female 
16 mm.; tegmina, male 32 mm., female 34.5 mm.: hind femora, male 20 mm., 
female 23 mm. Some specimens, especially from the north (Illinois, e. g.), are 
hardly more than half this size. 



Part II. 
ALFALFA AND BEES. 



INTRODUCTION. 



TN industry, productivity, adaptability, and utility, the class Insecta 
produces none superior to the honey-bee. The head secretes a lactic 
fluid; the tongue collects nectar; the honey stomach begins the trans- 
formation of nectar into honey ; the abdominal plates manufacture wax, 
and the posterior extremity is the seat of the defensive organ, the 
gland of which secretes formic acid. Every available bit of space is 
taxed to produce its required quota of valuable material. 

In the economy of nature, the bee is depended upon to care for 
itself and its offspring. Should it be considered a source of profit, 
intelligent management must be added to secure margins; and it 
can be safely said the depth of these margins is directly proportionate 
to the amount of time, thought and attention invested. This super- 
vision does not consist alone in the manipulation of the hive and its 
occupants, but includes, as well, provision for requisite pasturage 
from which ample supplies may be gathered. 

It has been deemed expedient to place in this connection a treatise 
upon practical methods in the manipulation of bees. "A Year with 
the Bees" has been ably prepared by Mr. A. H. Duff, of Lamed, Kan., 
who has devoted his attention almost exclusively to bees and beekeep- 
ing for the past thirty years. His early experience was gained in 
Ohio. This enables him to speak advisedly upon methods peculiarly 
adapted to Kansas. Mr. Duff, however, needs no introduction to the 
apiarists of Kansas, since he has conducted for years the apiary de- 
partment of the Kansas Farmer, and is a regular correspondent upon 
apiculture for a number of other leading journals. 

During the past summer the writer was placed in an excellent 
laboratory, the field, for observation and study of alfalfa as a honey 
plant, and the action of the bees thereon. Many apiaries in the alfalfa 
region were visited, observations made upon the conduct of bees 
toward alfalfa grown under varied conditions, and correspondence car- 
ried on with leading apiarists from all parts of the state. The quali- 
ties of alfalfa honey have also been chemically compared with the 
other leading varieties of honey, by Dr. E. C. Franklin, of the de- 
partment of organic chemistry, a well-known authority upon sugar 
analysis. Doctor Franklin was assisted by Mr. J. C Swayze, an ad- 
vanced student of that department, 

(67) 



68 VARIETIES OF BEES. 

The pages following show that alfalfa, under Kansas conditions, 
produces a quality and flow of honey surpassed by no other plant. 
A few speak with great favor of Alsike clover, but the observations 
upon this clover have in each case been made upon small plats of 
ground. The plant is by no means generally cultivated in the state. 

The greatest enthusiasm manifested upon apiculture is found in 
localities where large areas of alfalfa exist. The wives and daughters 
of many agriculturists and of some merchants, find pleasure and 
profit in caring for bees. Many keep bees simply for the table lux- 
ury derived. 

The bees gather the nectar from the blossom, and at the same time 
insure the formation of seed where the blossom was. The results 
noted show that the seed crop of alfalfa upon which bees worked 
was 662 per cent, greater than the crops taken from alfalfa dependent 
upon other insects for pollination. 

Many flowers cease to secrete nectar after being pollinated. Alfalfa 
continues to secrete nectar until the blossom begins to wither. The 
only objection found with alfalfa is the not infrequent removal of the 
plant for hay during the blooming stage. It is no unusual thing, 
however, to find within range of the apiary several thousand acres of 
alfalfa. Here, the second crop is in bloom before the first is all in the 
swath, and this continual blossoming places the coveted nectar before 
the bee from the 15th of June until the middle of October. 

This publication is sent forth with a desire that the resources of 
the alfalfa plant may receive the attention due thera, and that those 
unacquainted with the honey-bee may become familiar with its good 
qualities, may appreciate the luxuries of the hive, and find in the bee 
not only a source of profit, but also a work of pleasure. 

VARIETIES OF BEES. 

The common name, bee, is applied to many forms of the order 
Hymenoptera. It is not within the province of this work, however, 
to enter into a discussion of the genera of bees within the order, but 
simply to confine the treatise to the species technically known as Apis 
mellifica, commonly spoken of as the honey-bee. 

It is taken for granted that the name honey-bee is sufficiently 
familiar to require no further definition. Under this head, however, 
we find a number of kinds of bees; some speak of them as varieties, 
others as distinct species. It will suffice for our purpose, at present, 
to consider all as varieties of the one species, Apis mellifica, and to 
refer to each variety by the name popularly known. 

The varieties of bees which have been brought to this country, for 
the honey-bee is originally a foreigner, are the brown or German bee,. 



VARIETIES OF BEES. 69 

the Italian, the Egyptian, the Cyprian, the Syrian, the Palestine, the 
Carniolan, and the Tunisian. Believing that the interest of the bee- 
keepers in Kansas will be centered around the German bees, the 
Italians, Carniolans, and Cyprians, I will speak in detail of these only. 

GERMAN BEES. 

The German or brown bee was the first bee brought into this 
country. In the early settlements of North America these bees, afb-r 
introduction, went in advance of the settlers, notifying the Indians of 
the encroachments of civilization. Thomas Jefferson, in his history of 
Virginia, says that the natives called the honey-bee "the white man's 
fly"; so the German bee not only established the first honey factories 
in the United States, but also the first institutions of civilization in 
many localities. 

This bee is a native of middle and northern Europe. The species 
now among us is referred to as the black or brown bee. The charac- 
teristics of this bee may be summed up as follows : It has a highly 
irritable temper ; by some it is termed cross, in that it not infrequently 
leaves the hive to attack a passer-by. This disposition varies some- 
what with different strains. It is not a good neighbor, but frequently 
quarrels with others in the bee village. When long under manipula- 
tion it is liable to stampede, if such a term may be used, and the re- 
sults of this turmoil may be, at least, disagreeable. It is not the best 
defender against robbers, it is slow to learn a new locality, rather 
slow in building up in the spring, easily discouraged. It is a good 
honey gatherer, flies early, ranks high as a comb builder. For those 
who market comb honey, this bee furnishes artistically white-capped 
comb. Its irritable disposition frequently overshadows its commend- 
able qualities and loses it many friends among the apiarists. 

CARNIOLAN BEES. 

The Carniolans may be considered the other extreme in disposi- 
tion. They are notably gentle. In color .they resemble the German 
bee; in structure, however, they are larger and more robust. The 
rows of dense silvery white hairs on posterior portion of each of the 
abdominal segments mark these bees distinctively. This bee seems 
to obtain the good qualities of the German bee and none of the bad. 
It is a good comb builder — makes beautifully white-capped comb 
This bee uses little propolis, winters well, is long-lived. While it is a 
hard-working bee, a great accumulator of honey, it tends to swarm 
frequently. This objectionable feature, however, can be controlled 
by the intelligent apiarist. 







/■■■ 








G> 




y 



VARIETIES OF BEES. 71 



ITALIAN BEES. 



The United States department of agriculture in 18t>0 introduced 
these bees from Italy, and through the energy of this department 
they have been widely spread. For this reason they are well and 
favorably known. 

The chief distinction in the appearance of this bee is the color. 
The hairs spoken of previously are present, but are yellow; the first, 
three segments of the abdomen are for the most part tawny yellow. 
Leather or tan colored is a term sometimes used for this shade upon 
this bee. The first ring of the abdomen faces toward the front and 
the band upon this may be overlooked. The second segment is 
smooth yellow in front ; this is hairless, because it passes beneath the 
segment in front of it when the body contracts. The central portion 
of this segment is covered with yellow hairs and the body at this 
point is yellow. The back portion of this segment is glossy black 
and covered with very fine hairs. The markings of the third ring are 
the same as the second. The fourth and fifth segments are black, but 
covered with yellowish hairs. The sixth segment is black, and bears 
very few hairs. The queens vary in color. The one shown on plate 
II (page 70) was a beautiful queen, abdomen yellow, with small 
brown spots upon upper median line of each segment of abdomen. 
The drones are smaller than the drones of the black bee and darker 
than the Italian workers. 

These bees are usually gentle, bear manipulation, and remain firmly 
upon the comb when this is being handled. They fight hard, long 
and successfully for their homes ; but this strength and this tenacity 
are sometimes turned in the wrong direction, and these same defend- 
ers become bold and persistent robbers of others' gains. They repel 
the moth with success. These bees are hard workers, at it early and 
late, excellent honey collectors, but care is required to avoid too great 
attention on the part of the bees in rearing young with the surplus 
stores. 

CYPRIAN BEES. 

A few colonies of Cyprians are to be found in this state, but not 
in representative numbers nor in numbers sufficient to draw conclu- 
sions upon them in this climate. Their temper is anything but cheer- 
ful when thoroughly aroused ; their use of their weapon of defense is 
excelled by none of the varieties previously mentioned. This fault 
has prevented their general adoption. This variety has the largest 
honey record per hive for a single season. They winter well and are 
good defenders. Their comb is better for extracted than for comb 
honey. They fill the cups so full that cap and honey touch, giving 
the comb a watery appearance. They build coml) well. They are 



72 SOCIAL ECONOMY. 

smaller than the German bee. Orange bands are apparent upon the 
first three abdominal segments. They are exceeding thrifty, and are 
said to thrive where others fail entirely. 

A statement of the qualities of these bees has been given without 
an attempt to point out the one best adapted for this region. The 
Italians are justly popular. The black bee is still with us. The 
Carniolans and Cyprians are comparative strangers within our bor- 
ders. If an opinion were asked, it would be that the Italians and Car- 
niolans will merit every attention in this locality. Hybrids are being 
used to some extent, but a discussion of the various objects sought 
and qualities attained by this process will hardly apply here. 

SOCIAL ECONOMY OF THE HIVE. 

This communistic society contains three divisions, unequal in 
number but of equal importance in function. The colony is com- 
posed of a queen, the impregnated female, the drones or male element, 
and the workers or undeveloped females. 

The Queen. Before her true function was known she was termed 
the "king bee" on account of size. This, the most attractive person- 
age in the hive, is more frequently ruled than ruler. She receives 
«very attention that can be bestowed upon her by her attendants, the 
workers, and well they may caress her, for around her centers the ex- 
istence of the hive. The difference between a queen and a worker is 
caused by the difference in the amount and the character of the food 
given each in the earlier stages of development. As Cheshire would 
say, the workers are weaned and the queen nurses during her lifetime. 

Queens are developed in two ways, each under different circum- 
stances. In the natural procedure the queen cell is made, the fertil- 
ized egg placed therein, and the young larva fed, instead of the 
bee-bread intended for bees, royal jelly, a substance resembling 
blanc-mange, a food given forth from an active gland in the head 
of the nurse bees. Should the colony be deprived of its queen, the 
workers hasten the appearance of a new queen by tearing down the 
partition walls between three surrounding cells, taking the contents 
away, and leaving one egg to be fed for the throne. The egg 
hatches in about three days after being laid. About six days are 
spent in the worm or larval state, then seven in the quiescent or pupal 
state. In some cases the workers choose a cell containing a larva for 
the production of an emergency queen. If the workers choose a 
worm as a princess, the time from formation of cell to emergence of 
queen will be shorter than the full sixteen days a number of days 
equal to the age of larva, including egg period. Cheshire has shown 
that emergency queens are not equal to queens produced in the natu- 



SOCIAL ECONOMY. 73 

ral way. He further states that it is highly improbable that the bees 
can develop a queen from worker larva? which had begun to be Bed 
bee-bread. The large queen cell extending out from the comb, fre- 
quently hanging down not unlike a peanut in shape, is easily recog- 
nized. Queen cells are illustrated in Mr. Duff's article, further on. 

A few days after maturity the virgin queen leaves the hive on her 
marriage flight. She is met high in the air by a drone and fertiliza- 
tion takes place. She returns to her hive and there remains with the 
colony. The act of pairing takes place but once in the lifetime of a 
queen. 

About two days after impregnation the queen begins laying. If a 
very fertile queen, she will deposit from two to three thousand eggs 
daily. While the worker exhausts itself and dies in a few weeks, or 
months at the most, the queen is of greatest service to her colony for 
two years, and while she will live longer it is not advisable to retain 
her beyond that time. 

The Drone is developed from the unfertilized eggs placed in cells 
somewhat larger than worker cells. They develop in about twenty- 
four days, remaining three in the egg, six in the lar\al, fifteen in the 
pupal stage. These are reared in larger numbers during the swarm- 
ing season. This is nature's provision for the marriage flight of the 
queen. Were the drones few in number, it would be very probable 
that many queens would fail to meet a mate in the air. As it is, many 
drones are in mid-air searching for mates and the fertilization of the 
queen is assured. 

The fact that the drones are reared from unfertilized eggs, the un- 
mixed blood of the queen, and that workers are short-lived, make the 
introduction of a queen into the hive a matter of much importance. 
For it will be readily seen that with the introduction of a new queen, 
new drones of her exact strain soon appear. If the queen has been 
tested, and found to be purely mated, then the queens reared from 
the eggs will be pure, and these will now mate with pure-bred drones 
and their progeny will be a pure strain. The workers of the queen 
introduced will be pure bred and will shortly replace the native work- 
ers, who will have lived out their existence. 

This refers to a single colony. It must be noted in this connec- 
tion, however, that in an apiary one colony of an inferior strain may 
contaminate many other colonies in a single season by sending forth 
drones to breed with the pure queens of the other hives in the apiary. 

The Worker. This is the bee familiar to all of us: the one re- 
spected for its business air, as well as its powers for defense. The 
writer has realized the industry and activity of this marvelous little 



74 BEE PRODUCTS. 

honey gatherer when endeavoring to take its photograph while it was 
at work upon some of its favorite food plants. 

The number of individuals in a good colony ranges from 20,000 to 
80,000, according to the time of the year. The number can never ex- 
ceed the laying powers of the queen for the season, and rarely, if ever, 
equals that number. Workers mature in about twenty-one days, spent 
in the following stages : Three days in the egg, five in the larva? state, 
and thirteen as a pupa or chrysalis. 

The division of labor among the workers is discussed in another 
portion of this work. A young bee is easily known by its pale color 
and lack of strength. In a few days it grows larger, develops strength 
and color, and is well covered with hair. The aged worker is known 
by its tattered wings and bald body. The average life of a bee in the 
working season is about five weeks. 

BEE PRODUCTS. 

The bee is capable of bringing to his hive four things : Bee-bread, 
propolis or bee-glue, royal jelly, and honey. In addition to these, the 
bee carries, to be used in case of defense, a gland filled with poison, 
consisting chiefly of formic acid. The larva has facilities for spin- 
ning silk. 

Bee-bread is the pollen gathered from flowers, brought in upon 
the so-called pollen baskets of the hind legs, and placed, generally, in 
worker cells, packed down, then covered with honey and the cells 
sealed. This food is indispensable for the rearing of young brood. 
Huber demonstrated that young bees could not be reared without this 
pollen, though this without honey will not support mature bees. 

Propolis, or bee-glue, is a resinous substance gathered from the 
buds and limbs of trees. The bees use it to seal over cavities or un- 
necessary openings in their hives. In the heat of summer this re- 
mains soft and is used by the bee-moth as a receptacle for eggs. 
Hives should therefore have as few cavities as possible, and a poor 
quality of lumber, or boards partly split, should be avoided in the 
choice of material for hives. 

Royal jelly is a milk-like substance secreted in a gland within 
the head of the nurse bees. This is fed to all bees — workers, drones 
and queens alike. The workers and drones, however, are favored with 
this highly nitrogenous food during the first days of their larval ex- 
istence, only until their stomachs become ready to digest the bee- 
bread. The embryo queens are more favored and this royal jelly is 
lavished upon them during their development. According to Ches- 
hire it is the food of queens during their whole lifetime. 




BEE PRODUCTS. 75 

Silk. — The pupal cell is partially lined with silk. This is spun from 
glands in the head of the larva*. These glands are not used after the 
bee reaches maturity. 

Wax is a secretion which in the form of plates appears on the ven- 
tral surface of the second, third, fourth and fifth segments of the ab- 
domen. The wax is primarily secreted from the blood-cells as a fluid, 
and becomes more firm when it is transuded upon the abdominal wax 
pockets shown in the accompanying figure 1. It 
was erroneously believed for a long time that wax 
was pollen digested and then regurgitated. It is 
what might be termed surplus energy, or a cast- 
quite parallel to the secretion of fat in animals. 
Young bees secrete wax well; old bees produce 
littlewax. The same may be said regarding fat- 
producing powers of young and old animals. The 
production of wax exhausts the strength of the bees, 
and is a heavy tax upon the stores of honey. The 
bees intending to produce wax gorge themselves 
fig. i. Secretion with honey, and in about twenty-four hours after- 
farged,from S ''iikis- ward wax begins to transude and appear upon the 
trier* Bienenzei- wax plateg of the aodomen It requires from ten to 

sixteen pounds of honey to produce one pound of 
wax, according to Langstroth. Some authorities state greater weights 
and some less. When the amount of honey consumed is reckoned, the 
matter of comb foundation and subject of care of empty comb should 
receive careful attention. 

Honey. — The reward most coveted is expressed by this word. The 
word itself has a pleasing sound. It is the symbol of sweetness. The 
bee, bearer of this esteemed delicacy, collects nectar from the nec- 
taries of flowers and sap from the trees — a little here, a little there. 
These fluids in their watery state are taken into the honey sac (pi. 
in), corresponding to the crop of other insects; instead of passing 
on iuto the stomach, the sweet fluid is retained here until the hive is 
reached. A reference to plate III at this point will make the subject 
of the honey sac, stomach mouth and stomach sufficiently clear for 
the purpose of this discussion. The watery nectar of flowers and sap 
of trees is reduced to the consistency of honey, either by secretion of 
the water from the bee's honey sac, or evaporation caused by heat 
and currents of air in the hive. These currents of air, forced by the 
fanning of bees' wings up through the hive and over the uncapped 
honey, do much toward ripening and removing unpleasant (probably 
volatile) flavors. Formic acid is found in honey ; the exact form and 
amount have not been satisfactorily determined by chemists. 



mesa. 




Plate III. 

Digestive system of bee, magnified ten times (after Cheshire). 
A, Horizontal section of body; Ip, labial palpus; mx, maxilla; e, 
eye; dv, dv, dorsal vessel; v, ventricles of the same; JVo. 1, No. S, 
JVo. 3, salivary gland systems, 1, 2, 3; ce, oesophagus ; pro.t, pro- 
thorax; mesa J, mesathorax; meta.t, metathorax; g, g, ganglia of 
chief nerve chain ; n, nerves; hs, honey sac; p, petaloid stopper of 
honey sac or stomach mouth, c. s, chyle stomach; bl, biliary or 
malpighian vessels; si, small intestine; I, lamellae or gland plates 
of colon ; ft, large intestine. 



BEE PRODUCTS. 77 

While attending the National Beekeepers' Association, at Omaha, 
the writer was greatly impressed by the display of the varieties of 
honey. This publication being then in course of preparation, Com- 
missioner Whitcomb and Superintendent Stilson, of the department 
of bee industries, very generously furnished five samples, from which 
the accompanying photograph and chemical analyses were made. 
The varieties sent and donors were: Basswood (Til/a americana), 
from the apiary of L. D. Stilson, York, Neb.; knotweed (Polygonum 
pennsylvanicum) , E. Whitcomb, Friend, Neb.; white clover ( Tn 'fo- 
lium repens ), L. M. Whitford, Arlington, Neb.; sweet clover {Melli- 
lotus alba), L. D. Stilson, York, Neb.; alfalfa and melon bloom, G. D. 
Swink, Rocky Ford, Colo. The alfalfa {Medicago saliva) honey was 
sent direct to the department through the kindness of Capt. J. H. 
Wing, of Syracuse, Kan. 

The comparative lights and shades of these varieties of honey are 
shown in plate IV, and a careful analysis of the same has been made 
by Dr. E. C. Franklin and Mr. J. C. Swayze. Their results appear on 
page 79. 

As may be inferred from the title of this treatise, the subject of 
alfalfa honey would come under consideration. I can conceive of no 
better method of procedure than that of comparison, and upon that 
plan I have here carried on the investigation. Cheshire's definition 
of ideal honey is, "An ideal sample would have a delicate but charac- 
teristic aroma, a rich flavor, leaving a distinct impression on the back 
of the palate, and would be of a straw or pale amber color. It should 
possess perfect clearness, and, as distinct from clearness, brightness due 
to a high refractive index, with density almost amounting to toughness, 
so that the air beneath the cork should rise very slowly through the 
mass upon the inversion of the bottle." Of the six samples submitted, 
a competent judge placed the alfalfa honey as the one most nearly 
approaching this standard. Especially was this so with regard to the 
color and toughness. The six were inverted in the tubes, and the 
other five were free from the air bubbles in a short time, as compared 
with the alfalfa sample. The color of pure alfalfa honey is certainly 
highly desirable. The six test-tubes on plate iv, while not showing 
the exact tints, illustrate the comparative degrees of light and shade. 
They might be said to range from very light straw (6) to dark 
amber (J ). See next page. 

The tastes and flavors, largely personal elements, are not suscepti- 
ble to chemical tests or verbal descriptions; to be illustrated and ap- 
preciated they must be experienced. 



BEE PRODUCTS. 



79 



ANALYSES OF VARIOUS KINDS OF BONEY. 

By Dr. E. C. Franklin and J. C. Swayze, Department Organic Chemistry, 
University of Kansas. 



Sample. 


Polarization. 


Temp. C. 


Sucrose. 


Reducing 
sugars. 


Water. 




Direct. 


Indirect. 


Ash. 


Basswood 


-9.9 
-24.2 
-10.3 
-12.3 
-16. 


-14.9 

-29. 

-12.3 

-18.1 

-21. 


23 
23 
23° 

23 
23 


3.77 % 
3.62 % 
1.54 % 
4.38 % 
3.77 % 


76.92 % 
75.19% 
76 ::i % 
75.76 % 

78.1."> % 


11.31 % 
11.41 

7. Its % 
10. (JO % 

7.97 % 


.39 . 

.05 : 

.03 % 

1 15 


White clover 

Alfalfa.. 


Sweet clover 


.0.") % 



The above samples are all pure, as is shown by the different exam- 
inations. Pure honey consists of reducing sugars (d-glucose and 
d-fructose ) and non-reducing sugar ( sucrose.) Pure honey turns the 
plane of polarized light to the left, generally less than twenty divi- 
sions. An excess of this might indicate adulteration with invert 
sugar. This adulteration can be detected with certainty only when 
large quantities have been added. The sample of knotweed honey may 
have a slight excess of invert sugar. 

Dextro rotation may signify either an adulteration of glucose or a 
normal amount of sucrose. By inverting the sucrose, the presence of 
glucose is proven, if it is still dextro rotatory. As none of the samples 
analyzed were dextro rotatory, there was no adulteration with glucose. 

The sucrose found is in accordance with that of pure honey. It is 
determined by polarization before and after inverting. It is also de- 
termined by the Fehling method. The amount of reducing sugar is 
determined, the sucrose is then inverted, another titration is made, and 
the sucrose found by difference. We find that this method gives 
slightly lower results than the polariscope method. 

The water and ash are normal. From the results, it would seem 
that a little dust had settled in the basswood honey and had increased 
the percentage of ash. 

Comb Building. The architecture of the hive furnishes interesting 
study for the artisan as well as the apiarist. Contrary to supposition, 
however, comb is not constructed with geometric calculation. Cells are 
made of various sizes and shapes from the wax secreted. The store 
or honey cells are some what irregular and frequently deeper than 



Description of Plate IV. — Shades in various kinds of honey: /, l>ass- 
wood; 2, knotweed; J, white clover; 4, alfalfa: ■', sweet clover: 6, alfalfa and 
melon bloom. 



so 



BEE PRODUCTS. 



brood cells. The worker brood cells are the most regular, and average 
twenty-eight to thirty cells to the square inch. The drone cells are 
larger, and range about eighteen to the square inch. The structure of 
the queen cells has been described elsewhere. 

The Sting. The accompanying figure illustrates the structure of 
sting and the gland attending it. This weapon is brought into use, 

not alone as protection 
against intruders, such as 
man, but is much used 
against the unwelcome 
visitors of its own tribe. 
The formic acid and 
the other toxic element 
probably present in the 
fluid injected from the 
gland into the body of 
the one attacked, while 
discomfiting to us, is 
quite deadly to bees. 
This poisonous fluid can 
be secreted from the 
blood-cells of the bees, 
but when it is injected 
into the tissues, by means 
of another's sting, death 
follows When the honey- 
bee stings the human 
flesh the sting generally 
remains, and the bee, if 
not killed before, dies on 
account of the wound caused by the tearing away of the organs con- 
nected with the sting. 

"The third sting is composed of two spears of a polished, chestnut- 
colored, horny substance, which, supported by the sheath, makes a 
very sharp weapon. In the act of stinging, the spears emerge from 
the sheath about two-thirds of their length. Between them and on 
each of them is a small groove through which the liquid coming from 
the poison-sac is ejected into the wound. 

" Each spear of the sting has about nine barbs, which are turned 
back like those of a fish-hook and prevent 'the sting from being easily 
withdrawn. When the insect is prepared to sting, one of these spears, 
having a little longer point than the other, first darts into the flesh, 
and being fixed by its foremost barb, the other strikes in also, and 




Fig. 2. The sting of the worker bee, and its appenda- 
ges. (Enlarged, from Girard.) a, sting; b, poison-sac ; 
c c, poison glands ; d d, secreting bags. 



ALFALFA AND BEES. Si 

they alternately penetrate deeper and deeper, till they acquire a firm 
hold of the flesh with their barbed hooks. 

'• The muscles, though invisible to the eye, are yet strong enough 
to force the sting to the depth of one-twelfth of an inch through the 
thick skin of a man's hand.*'* 

Various remedies are recommended. It is important to scrape away 
with the finger nail the inserted sting; it should not be taken away by 
pinching it between the thumb and forefinger, for this act will force 
all the poison in the gland down into the wound. The place stung 
should not be rubbed, since this increases circulation and diffuses the 
poison over larger surface, consequently making the pain greater. 
This poison will mix freely with water, so that if the affected parts 
are placed in cold water the pain will be greatly allayed. Ammonia 
will neutralize the acid, and its use is recommended. 

While attending the National Beekeepers' Association, at Omaha, 
the writer was much interested in the discussion upon the medicinal 
properties of the sting. It was strongly advocated by some that the 
sting of the bee, directed toward the seat of rheumatic pains, would 
give permanent relief. It was the observation of others, based upon 
experiments, that no permanent value could be attached to the me- 
dicinal properties of the sting. In each case the speakers spoke from 
experience, the speaker being the subject of the experimentation. 

METHOD OF FERTILIZATION OF THE ALFALFA BLOSSOM. 

The location of the coveted nectar at the base of the flower, the 
action of the tongue of the bee and the work of the hairs under the 
head and upon the breast in placing the pollen upon the stigma are 

shown in figure 3, and also in figure 4 at 
I> J-f. The flower gives material aid, by 
causing the stamens and pistils to spring 
up and strike the insect. 

A part of Mailer's observations upon 
this point are : If in a young flower we 
cut through the claw of the carina, the 
column springs upward to some extent. 
Fig. 3. (Original.) Pollination carrying with it the carina and alse. If in 

by bee. J ° 

another unexploded flower, we carefully 
cut through one of the digitiform processes of the alse, the parts re- 
main motionless; but on cutting the processes of the other side, ex- 
plosion at once follows. The pouched processes of the carina ( fig. 
4, J J and c 3) are thus sufficient to hold the column down without 

* Langstroth. 
—6 




82 ALFALFA AND BEES. 

the aid of the processes of the ala3 (c2 ), nor are the latter sufficient 
after section of the carina. Explosion can therefore be effected 
equally well by separating the anterior pouches, by separating the 
digitiform processes, or, finally, by depressing the alse and carina. 

If an insect inserts its proboscis in the middle line between the an- 
terior pouches and the digitiform processes, or if it stands upon the 
ake and thrusts its head in the middle line under the vexillum, in 
either case explosion follows. The stigma ( c 5 ) projects beyond the 
anthers, and, therefore, is the first to strike the under surface of the 
bee's body or proboscis ; an instant later the anthers come in contact 
with an area close around the spot that the stigma touched, dusting it 
with fresh pollen. The first flower that the insect visits is, of course, 
not cross-fe-tilized, but as the bee withdraws from the flower, self- 
fertilization inevitably occurs. Self-fertilization is undoubtedly effi- 
cient, for Hildebrand has shown that flowers which wither unexploded 
when insects are excluded produce seed by self-ferlilization. The 
same author finds two imperfections in the mechanism. One is the 
possibility of the insect securing the nectar without exploding the 
flower ; the other is that the flower continues to secrete honey after 
it has been fertilized. This certainly is much in its favor as a honey 
plant, though somewhat against the visitation of other unfertilized 
flowers. 

In the case of the alfalfa, however, it will be seen that the stigma 
of the ovary is higher than the pollen producing anthers, so that the 
grains of pollen may all drop to the base of the flower and the ovary 
go unfertilized; such being the case, no seed would be formed. Small 
forms resembling seed might be found within the ovary at maturity, 
but these, not being fertilized, would not germinate. 

From the shape and size of the alfalfa blossom, it is not probable 
that cross-fertilization could be safely accomplished by means of cur- 
rents of air. 

It becomes evident, then, that outside agencies must be called upon, 
and the plant must provide for these agencies. The agents in this 
case we find to be insects, and the reward offered by the plant for 
favors rendered is a sweet drop of nectar; that is, the flower in an 
enticing way places a tempting sip of nectar in such a position that 
when the insect has favored the flower with a few grains of pollen un- 
consciously brought from an adjoining flower and just as uncon- 
sciously left, the coveted sip may be enjoyed. It is evident, however, 
that the first flower visited will not be cross-fertilized. 

INFLUENCE OF BEES UPON THE SEED CROP. 

It is well known to every stock-breeder that in-and-in breeding will 
soon cause the strain to deteriorate, and that infusions of new life are 



ALFALFA AND BEES. 



83 




- 



Fig. 4. (Original.) o, cluster of alfalfa with bee feeding, b, bee thrusting proboscis into 
flower: 1, vexillum; .', al*; ■>, carina; i, reproductive organs (gametangia) ; 5, calyx, r, alfalfa 
bloom with vexillum torn off: g, ala> ; ••?, carina ; ' 4 , reproductive organs (gametangia I : 5, stigma ; 
>:, anthers; 7, calyx, d: 1, filament; S, anther; S, style; i, stigma, e, pistil: 7, ovary; t, style; 
.i. stigma ; 4, ovules. /, cros^-section of pistil: /, detached filament : ?. filament sheath : 5, ovary; 
4, ovule. (/, highly magnified pollen grains. 

required to keep the desired vigor within the breed. As is the case 

with animals so it is with plants. It was previously supposed that 
within each flower were the necessary organs and the means for assur- 
ing the formation of the embryo within the seed. Darwin, however, 
has clearly shown that many plants, instead of endeavoring to facili- 
tate self-fertilization ( the forming of seed in the ovary from pollen of 
same flower ). are constructed in a manner to hinder or prevent it. 
Among this number may be classed the plant under consideration. 
A careful examination of the accompanying figure and explanations 
will reveal the fact that outside agencies are required to insure fertili- 
zation, especially cross-fertilization. The process of fertilization in a 
typical flower is not complex. The stamens have long filaments which 
bear the pollen-producing anthers high above the ovary ; when the 
pollen is ripe it falls naturally upon the stigma of the ovary, and fer- 
tilization of the seed is soon accomplished. 



84 



ALFALFA AND BEES. 



The writer conducted a number of experiments upon the fertiliza- 
tion of the alfalfa bloom. The first work consisted in covering a large 
number of blossoms with fine cheese-cloth. It soon became evident 
that this would exclude all insects, and the good services of the bee 
would not be demonstrated, so that this line was discontinued and 
another taken up. 

A large number of representative ripened pods were gathered from 
an alfalfa field less than one-half mile away from a large apiary, and 
a like number from another field of much the same soil and, practi- 
cally, under like conditions as the first field, except that the second 
field was situated twenty-five miles away from a colony of bees. No 
bees were observed in the field, and the character of the surround- 
ings, there being no timber or probable living places, was such as to 
preclude the possibility of wild bees in the vicinity. The pods from 
each locality were carefully opened and number of seeds in each 
counted. The results and comparison to be made therefrom are cer- 
tainly of interest. 



Seeds taken half mile from bees ; 
87 pods examined. 


Seeds taken twenty-five miles from 
bees: 80 pods examined. 


No. of seeds 
in pod. 


No. of pods 

bearing that 

number of 

seeds. 


Total number 
of seeds. 


No. of seeds 
in pod. 


No. of pods 

bearing that 

number of 

seeds. 


Total number 
of seeds. 














2 





1 


1 


1 


1 


8 


8 


2 


5 


10 


2 


18 


36 


3 


8 


21 


3 


20 


60 


4 


11 


56 


4 


15 


60 


5 


18 


90 


o 


7 


35 


6 


11 


66 


6 


o 


30 


7 


15 


105 


7 


3 


21 


8 


9 


72 


8 


1 


8 


9 


2 


18 


9 








10 


4 


40 


10 
Totals 


1 


10 


Totals 


87 


482 


80 


268 


Average nun 
Seeds plump ; 
having several 


iber of seeds in 
pods numerous in 
spirals. 


a pod, 5.58+. 
cluster; pods 


Average num 
in at least on 
and shriveled 
with but few s 


ber of seeds in a ] 
e-third of the p( 

pods few in a 
pirals. 


>od,3.35. Seeds 
ids were small 
cluster; short, 



Per cent, of increase of the first field over the second, 66?. 
ALFALFA AS A HONEY PLANT. 

My observations upon this subject during the past season have 
been that it will yield the greatest amount of nectar under circum- 
stances which tend to give the plant the most vigorous growth ; that 
is, proper amount of heat and moisture, upon suitable soil. If the 
plant is upon upland, dry weather will affect the secretion of nectar 
before it will be affected in the valley, such as the Arkansas valley, 



ALFALFA AND BEES. v ~> 

where the roots of the plants extend to the water. In September the 
bees were busy in the alfalfa in the Arkansas valley, while, on the 
higher ground of one of the counties on the eastern border, I visited 
a beautiful piece of alfalfa near by an apiary, but no bees were found. 
They were at that time flying over the alfalfa to the knotweeds be- 
yond. A strong point in favor of this plant, as shown by Mttller, is 
that it continues to secrete nectar as long as the blossom Flourishes. 
A greater part of the alfalfa produced in this state is cultivated for 
forage, and, since for this purpose it is cut while in full bloom, the 
honey crop is materially less than it would be if alfalfa were allowed 
to mature. During a dry period bees will fly over alfalfa fields in 
bloom to a field which has been irrigated a few days previously and 
has begun to bloom. 

The relation existing between alfalfa and apiculture can well be 
obtained by a comparison of the tables following, the data for which 
Mr. F. D. Coburn. of the state board of agriculture, has kindly fur- 
nished. The attention of the reader is called to the yield of honey 
per hive in counties where larger acreages of alfalfa exist, as compared 
with the yield per hive where the crop is much less. 



80 



ALFALFA AND BEES. 



Comparative Table, showing alfalfa acreage, stands of bees, pounds of honey produced, and 
the value thereof, in Kansas, for tbe two years 1897 and 1898. 





1897. 


1898. 


Counties. 


Acres 

of 
alfalfa. 


Stands Pounds 

of of 

bees, i honey. 


Value 

of 
honey. 


Acres 

of 
alfalfa. 


Stands 

of 
bees. 


Pounds 

of 
honey. 


Value 

ot 
honey. 


The State 


171,344 


44,345 534,925 


$80,238 75 


231,548 


60,941 


622,703 


$93,405 45 


Allen 


91 

124 

345 

1,453 

1,565 

3t 

517 

7,755 

5,753 

3,481 

6 

605 

775 

207 

4,696 

757 

7 

3,904 

19 

3,307 

1,745 
44 

396 
2,930 
2,837 

185 

4(1 

11,726 

4,277 

56 

559 

499 

391 

9 

1,918 


526 

508 

546 

11 


4,295 
3,721 
4,516 


$644 25 
55* 15 
681 90 


633 
197 
171 

1,026 
1,678 

98 

688 

12,029 

7,298 

3,998 

37 

682 

575 

381 

5,729 

943 
19 

5,722 
6 

4,278 

2,000 

126 

604 

6,523 

3,860 

316 

644 
11,795 

4,508 
175 

723 
1,019 

707 


416 

666 

1,391 

4 


1,365 

3.437 

12,579 

50 


$204 75 
515 55 

1,886 85 
7 50 


Anderson . ... 

Atchison 

Barber 


Barton 


1 

1,512 
1 421 








Bourbon 


10,153 
'JS 5>:-tl 


1,522 95 
3,481 65 
1,035 60 
1,324 50 
553 65 

3,458 70 


1,385 

2,633 

939 

605 

501 

1,476 
6 
6 

1,328 
744 

736 


7,778 

34,317 

8,295 

1,849 

929 

6,286 
100 


1,166 70 


Butler 


'638 fi'am 


1,244 25 
277 35 
139 35 

942 90 
15 00 


Chase 

Chautauqua . . 

Cherokee 

Cheyenne 


710 
299 

2,046 


8,830 
3,691 

23,058 


Clark 










Clay 


481 
689 

628 


8,303 
8,763 

5,912 


.1,245 45 
1,314 45 

886 80 


7,616 
10,614 

2,466 


1 142 40 


Cloud 


1 596 60 


Coffey 


369 90 


Comanche 




Cowley 

Crawford 
Decatur 

Dickinson 

Doniphan 

Douglas 

Edwards 

Elk 


542 

1,509 
12 

397 

927 

1,258 

14 

467 


2,905 

19,234 

60 

6,429 
11,013 
15,112 

50 
3,649 


435 75 

2,885 10 

9 00 

964 35 

1,656 45 

2,266 80 

7 50 

547 35 


1,070 

1,922 

26 

726 

1,343 

1,605 

15 

523 


9,702 

10,566 

380 

5,897 

12,970 

20,714 

4L0 

3,623 


1,455 30 

1,584 90 

57 00 

884 55 

1,945 50 

3,107 10 

60 00 

543 45 


Ellis 




Ellsworth 


533 

5 

1,432 

296 


13,665 

10 

9,954 

3,663 




722 

39 

1,628 

388 


80 
50,535 
2,020 
13,052 

2,938 


12 CO 


Ford 


2,049 75 

1 50 

1,493 10 

549 45 


7,580 25 
303 00 


Franklin 

Geary 


1,957 80 
440 70 


Graham 














Grant 


8 












40 


6 00 


2,250 

6 

9,518 

2,779 

321 

2,143 


29 


867 


130 05 


Greeley 




Greenwood 

Hamilton 


5,359 

2,422 

527 

1,535 


596 

106 

10 

71 


2,831 


424 65 


623 
3 
2 

123 


2,231 
200 


334 65 
30 00 


Harper 








Harvey 

Haskell 


424 


63 60 


1,468 


220 20 


Hodgeman 


127 

575 

239 

6,786 

129 

6,620 
407 
109 
156 

430 

66 

1,082 

28 

240 

5,143 
4,913 

857 
3,354 
1,286 








131 

865 

325 

10,454 

129 

5,515 

433 

161 

170 

512 

349 

1,545 

66 

159 

9,129 
7,518 
1,397 
4,546 
2,323 








Jackson 

Jefferson 

Jewell 

Johnson 

Kearny 

Kingman 


915 

1,207 
866 

932 

77 


10.1J-9 
15,031 
12,499 

13,215 

2,275 


1,528 35 
2,254 65 

1,874 85 

1,982 25 
341 25 


1,836 
1,255 
1.276 

1,164 

107 


21,839 
14,313 
19,285 

15,486 
7,060 


3,275 85 
2,146 95 
2,892 75 

2,322 90 
1,059 00 


Kiowa 








""l,503 






Labette 

Lane 


1,196 


8,367 


1,255 05 


2,662 


399 30 


Leavenworth . 
Lincoln . 

Linn 

Logan 


973 

5 

779 


11.8S8 

108 

3,921 


1,783 20 

16 20 

588 15 


1,680 

32 

960 


19,588 

212 

6,667 


2,938 20 

31 80 

1,000 05 




1,154 

476 

1,457 

97 
5 


12,658 
4,310 

26,752 
1,151 


1,898 70 
646 50 

4,012 80 
172 65 


1,145 

502 
4 996 

178 
5 


3,458 

416 

33,548 

2,223 

15 


518 70 


Marion 

Marshall 
McPherson.. .. 


62 40 

5,032 20 

333 45 

2 25 



ALFALFA AND BEES. 



87 



COMPARATIVE TABLE -Concluded. 





l*»7. 


|N'»V 


Counties. 


Acres 

of 
alfalfa. 


Stands 

of 

bees 


Pounds 

of 
honey. 


Value 

of 
honey. 


Acres 

of 
alfalfa. 


Stands Pounds 

of of 

bees. honey. 


Value 

of 
honey. 




48 

5,149 

579 

426 

3 

2,235 
136 
121 

4,112 
965 

3,924 
2,725 
365 
3,142 
3,294 

76 
2,401 
3,574 
2,667 
1,830 

1,927 
880 
45 
372 

5,269 

206 

4,389 

17 

1,115 

2,096 

50 

1 ,026 

352 


857 
622 
456 
440 

1,210 
711 

475 
952 

19 

390 

24 

85 

1,235 


8,589 
8.262 
2,352 
2,075 


$1,288 35 

1,239 30 

352 80 

311 25 


152 i ms is ma 


$1,810 95 

1,793 70 

111 30 

201 75 


Montgomery .. 
Morris 


7,015 

1,637 

889 

2 

2,551 

252 

178 

5,965 

1,908 

4,076 
3,308 
597 
4,062 
4,340 

171 


770 
:iss 
255 


11,958 

742 

1,315 


Nemaha 

Neosho 


22,905 
6,615 

10,577 
10,987 

60 

3,102 

500 

790 

18,350 


3,435 75 

992 25 


2,566 

733 

1 

424 

1,591 

19 
447 

21 

93 

1,585 


36,512 

1,02:; 


5,476 80 
153 45 


Norton 


i,586 55 
1,648 05 

9 00 

465 30 

75 00 

118 50 

2,752 50 


17,439 
6,406 

356 

3.9L0 

1,620 

1,838 

17,560 


2,615 85 
960 90 


Osborne 

Pawnee 

Phillips 
Pottawatomie, 

Pratt 


53 40 

585 00 

243 CO 

275 70 

2,634 00 


Rawlins 


8 

10 

614 

29 

1,376 
17 


40 
22 

9,89) 
205 

22,118 
350 


6 66 

3 30 

1,483 50 

30 75 

3,317 70 
54 00 


998 
4,385 
4,012 
2,871 

2,806 

1,271 

70 


10 
13 


720 

64 

17,696 

1,160 

14,723 

400 


108 00 
9 60 


Republic 


1,220 
36 

1,558 

18 


2,654 40 
174 00 


Riley 


2,208 45 
60 00 


Rooks 

Rush 


Russell 


614 


5,771 


865 65 


407 
6,228 

218 

6,530 

15 


712 


5,423 


813 45 


Scott 




Sedgwick 


468 

872 
2 


3,510 

8,106 


526 50 
1,215 90 


769 


6,969 


1,045 35 


Shawnee 


1,740 
3,334 

18 
1,598 


1,192 
3 


6,739 


1,010 85 














61 


708 


106 20 


90 


1,225 
20 


183 75 




501 2 


3 00 




1 






















Sumner 


1,516 

2;7 

396 

4,295 

570 

763 

148 

1,180 

843 

79 


56 


128 


19 20 


2,035 150 
372 6 


770 
100 


115 50 

15 00 










677 

6,439 

685 






Wabaunsee . . . 


1,709 


13,919 


2,087 85 


1,196 ' i2,770 
6 140 


1,915 50 
21 00 


Washington .. 


1,389 


42,777 


6,416 55 


1,139 2,312 

178 

2,462 696 

1,325 312 

136 474 


50,389 

2,789 
1,170 
4,538 


7,558 35 


Wilson 

Woodson 

Wyandotte 


579 
380 
316 


2,602 
3,720 
3,045 


390 30 
558 00 
456 75 


418 35 
175 50 
680 70 



OBSERVATIONS BY APIARISTS. 



OBSERVATIONS GATHERED FROM KANSAS APIARISTS. 

During the field-work this year it was the writer's privilege to meet 
a large number of the Kansas apiarists at work among their bees. In 
conversation, many thoughts concerning their observations upon bees 
and honey plants were expressed. Some of these, unknown to the 
speakers, were jotted down and appear here. An extensive corre- 
spondence with some 400 bee-keepers in this state furnishes much 
valuable reading for those interested. The substance of some of these 
letters is given here. 

The number of personal discussions and opinions which appear 
here might be increased many times, but in so doing the same ideas 
would be repeated ; want of space also forbids ; so that the substance 
of the views of a few apiarists of Kansas upon the principal honey- 
producing plants of the state, together with a few other facts concern- 
ing apiculture, are herewith given. 

J. F. Hughes, Marquette, McPherson county ; thirty stands ; Ital- 
ians. ''They are good workers, and it takes a very strong wind to keep 
them in their hives. In central Kansas we must depend almost en- 
tirely on alfalfa for a honey plant. White clover cannot be cultivated 
successfully here. Buckwheat can be raised in abundance, but can we 
afford to raise it for the honey alone? If season is favorable, Italian 
bees will gather 100 pounds per stand from alfalfa. Alfalfa will grow 
here entirely without irrigation." 

Mrs. C. E. Anderson, Salina, Saline county ; eighty colonies ; 
Italians and hybrids. "Alfalfa is our main honey plant, and in a 
favorable season the honey is equal to the best white honey. Buck- 
wheat makes a good yield sometimes, but the honey is dark and strong. 
In 1895 I had 1075 pounds fine comb honey from twelve colonies, and 
several hundred pounds more not in marketable shape." 

Wm. Miller, Emporia, Lyon county; sixty-three stands. "I re- 
gard alfalfa superior as a honey plant to buckwheat or white clover, 
as I have known the latter in Ohio. I believe that a few stands 
of bees on the lands of every Kansas farmer would be a source of 
revenue, as well as adding quite a luxury to the living of himself and 
family, and that with less outlay of labor and money than anything 
else I know, unless it be the cow and hen. Bee-culture very naturally 
works in with all small fruits, truck patches, fowls of every descrip- 
tion, and other kindred industries, as an individual can be working at 
the one, and yet have his apiary so located as to have an eye over it 
continually during the swarming season. The bee can be wintered 
in Kansas without any special preparation. Kansas is destined to be- 
come a great honey-producing state as the alfalfa gains more and 
more, as it is bound to do." 



OBSERVATIONS BY APIARISTS. 89 

Mrs. L. A. Carey, Phillipsburg, Phillips county. "Began bee- 
keeping in 18U5; have now twelve colonies. Five colonies this season 
produced 300 of pounds surplus honey and gave off two swarms. In 
order to prevent a second swarm, I changed position of old and new 
swarms in daytime. This causes all the bees in the field to fly to 
the young colony, builds it up, and weakens the old swarm, so that it 
does not have the desire for increase. We have to depend on 
alfalfa here for the main honey crop. It makes a beautiful white 
honey, like white clover. Alfalfa produces the most honey during 
the month of July." 

H. M. Hill, Paola, Miami county; twenty stands; Italians. "] 
do not consider alfalfa a success as a honey plant, as we had a large 
pasture one-half mile from the bees and received no honey. I am a 
stock-raiser, and have no time for bees, so they receive but little care. 
We consider white clover the best of honey plants, and buckwheat 
good at times." 

George Yoxall, Woodston, Rooks county; twenty stands; all 
Italians or hybrids. "Alfalfa is an excellent honey plant here, yield- 
ing the best white honey, from the 1st of June until the 1st of Sep- 
tember, and sometimes as late as the 1st of October. Sweet clover 
may be superior in yield, in a more continuous flow of honey, as there 
is no check in mowing as there is in alfalfa, and alfalfa does not give 
the best results on account of taking off the crop just about the time 
the bees are commencing to work on it, and if there is no seed crop 
taken, there is not much benefit conferred." 

J. G. Brooks, Pleasanton, Linn county; forty stands. "Have 
spent fifty years with bees. I have had no experience with alfalfa. 
White clover, buckwheat, corn tassel and tree blossoms are good here. 
Bees should be cared for the same as other stock. Care will pay." 

E. K. Terry, Burlingame, Osage county; thirteen colonies. "Have 
had no experience with alfalfa as a honey plant. We have members in 
our town bee-keepers' association who have quantities of alfalfa on 
land watered by rains, who report favorably. Mr. Arnold has both al- 
falfa and alsike, and reports that alsike produces much better-flavored 
honey and more of it than the alfalfa. I consider the sweet clover 
one of the very best honey plants. It produces white and good- 
flavored honey. I would keep bees for the pleasure and honey 
enough to supply the family. I consider honey one of the greatest 
table luxuries that it is possible to have. I find that with cellar 
wintering I can bring out a strong colony in the spring on ten to 
twelve pounds of honey." 

M. B. Guard, Beloit, Mitchell county; eleven colonies; all Ital- 
ians. "Alfalfa honey is better than white clover, because it is richer. 



DO 



OBSERVATIONS BY APIARISTS. 



It is better than buckwheat, because it is as thick and rich and a 
great deal whiter.'" 

Mrs. M. D. Hetzel, Kinsley, Edwards county; nine stands. "Our 
feed for bees here is mostly alfalfa, some wild flowers; no fruit-tree 
blossoms. The bees find considerable feed on the box-elder trees early 
in spring. Have a fifty-acre field of alfalfa joining the apiary, with 
plenty of water within a few rods. The bees have had continuous 
feed upon alfalPa blossoms from the 10th of May until frost, which 
this year did not hurt the blossoms until the 16th of October. Do 
not think white clover or buckwheat could be any improvement on 




Fig. 5. (Original.) Honey-bee on alfaila. From photograph. 



alfalfa for honey, either in quality or quantity. Oar best swarm this 
year produced forty pounds by July 3, and thirty-two more at the 
close of the season, making seventy-two pounds for the swarm. Five 
of the other swarms did nearly as well. Our honey this season was 
pronounced by all who tried it to be as fine, if not the finest, flavored 
they had ever eaten. I do not know yet as there is much profit 
in keeping bees, but it is light and pleasant work. My sixteen-year- 



OBSERVATIONS BY APIARISTS. ( .»1 

old daughter attends the bees almost entirely and enjoys it. She says 
it is easier than raising poultry, and has more money in it. I know it 
will pay any farmer's wife to keep a few stands of bees in order to 
have plenty of honey to use in the family." 

J. 0. Balch, Bronson. Bourbon county: fifteen stands. "I prefer 
Italians; have found Cyprians cross and almost unmanageable. We 
have no honey-producing flora in this part of the state. Bees in Kan- 
sas are not a source of pecuniary income every year; but, taking one 
year with another, will average with other agricultural pursuits. I 
have been keeping bees in a small way since 1875, and have never 
been out of honey for our table but twice, for a few months each time, 
and I have sold hundreds of dollars' worth of honey." 

D. B. Jones, Mound Ridge, McPherson county. "I have four 
stands of bees. My experience is that alfalfa is a good honey plant 
upon lands watered by rain. But I do not think there is any better 
plant to make tine-flavored honey than white clover. Yet our bees 
have been doing much better since there has been plenty of alfalfa 
raised here. I do not think bees have half the care they deserve." 

H. H. McGugin, May view, Jewell county; forty stands. i- I prefer 
Italian, but like Carniolans almost as well. I think alfalfa and sweet 
clover are the best honey-producing plants we have."' 

P. C. Gress, M. D., Atchison, Atchison county, fifty stands. •• I 
have none but Italians, as I find them far superior in every way to 
other races. They are better workers, more gentle, less excitable, 
winter better, remain kindly upon the comb, while other races 
under like handling run and fall down and scatter, and are more 
annoying to the apiarist. One of my observations is of special inter- 
est to fruit-growers. In my estimation the honey-bee is one of the 
greatest necessities for the proper cross-fertilization of blooms. I 
have protected limbs of trees by screen cloth during blossoming sea- 
son, and kept the insects from them, only to find a limb without fruit, 
where others, without protection, were well fruited. I have received 
good interest on every dollar invested, and mean to continue the in- 
dustry, despite the loss and backset which I received last wilder. 153 
colonies stored for the winter being burned." 

Solon Steere, Asherville, Mitchell county; thirty-five colonies; 
Italians. "I think that alfalfa is about the only plant here from which 
bees secure a surplus of honey, and that, of course, with natural 
moisture. Sweet clover I consider the very best honey plant we have, 
but there is not enough of it, It is not inclined to spread very fast. 
I have scattered quite a little of the seed at different times, but re- 
sults have not been very encouraging. We seem to get the greatest 
benefit from alfalfa, when it is left for the seed crop. I do not make 



Cr. 

800 pounds of honey, at 10c. . . $80 00 
19 hives bees, at $4 76 00 



92 OBSERVATIONS BY APIARISTS. 

any special effort to care for the bees, to make money from them. I 
have sold many colonies in the years gone by. We sell some honey, 
and have all we want for ourselves. There is no good reason why 
every family should not have a full supply of honey all the year 
round. All that is necessary is to get the start in bees ; furnish them 
a home, and protect them. They seem to be willing to work for any 
one, and board themselves." 

Robert Douglas, Long Island, Phillips county. "I had six hives, 
grade Italians, last spring, and by natural swarming I saved thirteen, 
making nineteen swarms at present. From fourteen hives I have 
taken 800 pounds of section honey, which is worth at home ten cents 
per pound. My year's profit might be reckoned thus : 

Dr. 

6 hives bees, at $5 $30 00 

Supplies 25 00 

Labor 20 00 

To balance ( profit ) 81 00 

Total $156 00 Total... $156 00 

Ed. Hoffmeister, Norton, Norton county. "My experience shows 
alfalfa to be a very good honey plant. Bee-keeping is quite profitable 
if a person tries to make it so. It is some expense to begin, but I 
have always made expenses and good interest on my money." 

R. W. Smith, Delphos, Ottawa county; twenty-two stands; Ital- 
ians. "My bees gather their honey from alfalfa watered by rain, and 
have made forty pounds of honey to the stand. Alfalfa honey is su- 
perior to white clover or buckwheat honey. I lost several valuable 
swarms by wintering them in the cellar. Chaff hives are preferable. 
I use foundation comb for starting. Bees sometimes put comb in 
crosswise, and the starter prevents this. There is money, good health 
and honey in the bee business." 

W. D. Jones, Neodesha, Wilson county. "I think alfalfa is equal 
to white clover or buckwheat." 

M. A. Butts. Hiawatha, Brown county. "My honey has been 
mostly secured from white and alsike clover, basswood, buckwheat, 
and wild flowers. I consider alsike superior to white clover as a honey 
plant. My experience leads me to the conclusion that bees, with 
proper care and attention, will pay in this country. It is important 
to protect bees well in winter and have them strong in spring." 

Jacob Swoyer, Winchester, Jefferson county ; twenty stands ; 
Italian. " Buckwheat, white clover and smartweed are the principal 
honey plants here. I have had no experience with alfalfa. Like 
white clover best when the season is not too wet. I do not allow my 
colonies to swarm much, about twice in three years. I prefer one 
strong colony to a dozen weak ones. In 1896 I had hives which made 



OBSERVATIONS BY APIARISTS. 



93 



110 pounds of honey and plenty for their own use. I would not do 
without my bees, as I think honey and pancakes good enough for 
anybody." 

D. J. Fraser, Peabody, Marion county; fifty-four stands. "I use 
Italians crossed with the German bee. Alfalfa is best in a medium 
wet season. Bees seem to care nothing for it if season is very dry or 
very wet. Like all other stock in Kansas, bees require some intelli- 
gent care. If properly mismanaged they seem to swarm world with- 
out end." 



1 ' ' — r. — ■ ■ ; : ^-» 




^'A^ 




i 


v 








*kjLA ^ • 




JL 





Fig. 6. (Original.) Hooey-bee on white clover. From photograph. 

F. H. Miller, Great Bend, Barton county. "I had thirteen stands 
in the spring, and have twenty-eight now. Have taken 1200 pounds 
of comb honey, all alfalfa. It is a good honey plant. There is I ml 
one clover that beats alfalfa, and that is alsike. I have a small patch 
which blooms eight or ten days earlier than alfalfa, and the bees are 
thick in it from morning till evening. Alfalfa is a good and delicious 
honey plant, and produces a fine-flavored honey, better than Colorado 
honey as there is no other flavor mixed with it. I sell my honey at 
fifteen cents per pound, while Colorado honey sells for ten and twelve 
cents. A person cannot expect something for nothing. Take care of 
your bees and they will pay as good profit as anything I know of. 
I am in the hardware and agricultural implement business, and have 
little time for bees myself. Mrs. Miller, however, thinks more of the 
bees than anything else, and enjoys taking care of them. I think if 
more wives and daughters would take it up it would be better for 
them. They would find it a very good and enjoyable business. If a 
beestings sometimes, it is good for rheumatism, and there seems to be 



94 OBSERVATIONS BY APIARISTS. 

plenty of that in this country. Alfalfa is far ahead of buckwheat or 
white clover.*' 

R. L. Snodgrass, Gordon, Butler county. "Have sixty hives and 
manage, in addition, forty for others. I have kept hybrids and Ital- 
ians, and prefer the latter. Alfalfa has given me wonderful honey 
flows. My hives on scales this season and last ran as high as fifteen 
pounds per day. I have turned my whole attention to the bee busi- 
ness and have secured for this season's labor 5000 pounds comb and 
extracted honey from sixty hives. I secured this season 200 pounds 
from one hive. Alfalfa, in my experience, is far ahead of buckwheat 
as a honey plant. I winter my bees both in the cellar and in the open 
air with success." 

W. D. Fulton, Garden City, Finney county ; eighty-five stands. 
"Alfalfa as a honey plant is second to none for richness of nectar and 
flavor. It is a very common thing for a single colony to gather 200 
pounds of comb honey in a season and sometimes more. I would pre- 
fer a dry climate for bees, provided there is plenty cf water at com- 
mand, but usually there is sufficient rainfall to make the business 
profitable here. I meet with very few difficulties in the care of my 
bees." 

Dr. T. J. Conry, Florence, Marion county ; 300 stands. "Alfalfa 
is our best and surest honey producer, although sweet clover would 
probably be better if raised in equal quantities." 

C. A. D. Bennett, Garden City, Finney county. "I have 220 stands 
of bees. Alfalfa is a splendid honey plant. There is no better in 
Kansas. We get three distinct flows from it each year. Each bloom 
gives a flow. The flow on irrigated land is more even than on land 
watered by rain, but is not so heavy. Alfalfa is superior in every way 
to while clover, sweet clover, or buckwheat. I do not attempt to 
build up weak colonits. I believe in the survival of the fittest. I 
give my bees the best care and attention. I leave plenty of honey in 
the fall for their winter's supply. Then if they dwindle I let them 
go, and pay attention to my other colonies. In this way I rear colo- 
nies disposd to be strong." 

John Weir, Carbondale, Osage county. "I have at present fifty- 
five colonies. I prefer the pure Italian. They are good honey 
gatherers, hardy, gentle, and beautiful. I have had no experience 
with alfalfa as a honey plant. There is not much grown in my 
neighborhood. We have both the yellow and white sweet clover here 
on waste land. The yellow is of most value, as it blooms six weeks 
earlier than the white, and just at a time when the bees are much in 
need of something to do. When the honey flow begins, I place the comb- 
honey colonies in one brood chamber, and keep them well-shaded, put 



OBSERVATIONS BY APIARISTS. 95 

on forty-eight sections, and prop the hive off the bottom board to 
give better ventilation. In this way I prevent swarmiDg to a very 
large degree. I thus secure strong colonies, and in this lies the 
secret of profits in honey. I have one ton of surplus honey at my 
elbow taken from forty colonies, spring count — 1500 pounds ex- 
tracted, and 500 pounds comb, or an average of 50 pounds per colony." 

Laurens Hawn, Leavenworth, Leavenworth county. "I have had 
no experience with alfalfa. White clover is the main dependence for 
a flow of nectar in this vicinity, and as it is very uncertain, the bee 
business is consequently not very profitable. There seems to be a 
prevalent though erroneous idea among horticulturists and people in 
general who raise a little fruit that bees are destructive to the ripe 
fruit. On the contrary, they are very beneficial to fruit-growers, and 
this fact should be promulgated among the people. I have had con- 
siderable experience in this matter for several years, and know posi- 
tively that without bees our fruit crops would lie more often a failure. 
My apiary is in an orchard between two small vineyards ; vines within 
twenty feet of the hives. I have suspended a bunch of ripe grapes in 
a hive during a lime when the bees were working on decayed grapes 
in the vineyard, and not a grape was punctured. Of course, when 
grapes or other fruits are punctured or have rotten spots in them, and 
there is no nectar in the blooms, they will work on such fruit; hence 
arise the erroneous ideas concerning their destructive qualities. I 
have observed that if there is so much rain during the blooming 
period that bees cannot visit the fruit blossoms, there is always a 
failure of fruit crops. Many people spray their fruit-trees when 
they are in bloom, while they should never be sprayed until the 
bloom is falling. If people spray trees in full blossom they not 
only kill bees, but run the risk of poisoning the people who eat the 
honey made at that time. Another point is that in reference to the 
wholesomeness of honey as food : it can be used in all diseases when 
sugar and other sweets are prohibited, and if bought of reliable 
parties is free from all adulterations, which can hardly be said of 
sugar and other sweets. Bee-keeping in this locality, as a single occu- 
pation, is not profitable." 

J. F. Crocker, Garden City. Finney county. "Alfalfa is a splendid 
honey plant if it has plenty of moisure, either from rain or irrigation. 
During protracted dry weather it does not secrete nectar, and during 
excessive wet weather the bloom sloughs off, and we get no honey. 
If we were situated so we could irrigate the alfalfa fields immediately 
after each crop of hay was cut. and the fields were not all mowed at 
the same time, and none mowed until the seed-pods begin to form, 
we would have a continuous honev Mow from June 15 to October 1." 



96 



OBSERVAVIONS BY APIARISTS. 




Fig. 7. 



(Original.) Honey-bee on sweet clover. 
From photograph. 



Samuel Teaford, Norton, Norton county. ''Alfalfa clover is the 
best honey plant for this part of the state. It grows best on bottom 
lands, and produces most honey in seasons of moderate rainfall. The 
worst difficulty met with is the man who keeps bees and puts his 
honey on the market in a dirty, filthy condition, half capped, and no 
attention paid to grading; who, if he cannot find ready sale, w T ill sell 
for anything offered him, to the great detriment of the man who is 
careful to pi ice on the market only a choice article, nicely cleaned 
and graded. To the man who wants to keep bees, I would say, do 
not buy but one or two stands of bees to start with ; get pure Italians, 
in standard hives, with combs built on full sheets of foundation and 
wired in frame ; would use full sheets of foundation, if had to pay one 
dollar a pound for them. Then get a good text-book on bee-keeping, 
and pay no attention to the man who tells you that bees do not pay, 



OBSERVATIONS BY APIARISTS. 97 

and that the drones build the combs, and that the wax is gathered 
from sunflowers. Every fanner who is located within two or three 
miles of alfalfa or clover fields should get a few stands of bees, and 
have nice honey for his family, instead of buying the filthy glucose 
jellies and other stuffs that are for sale in every store." 

John W. LaBar, Erie, Neosho county. "I have not been engaged 
in bee-culture except as a side issue and to furnish honey for our own 
table. We now have twenty- rive colonies. We have taken 500 or 
600 pounds of honey this fall, and the bottoms of hives seem to be 
full. There seems to be a good deal of white clover in this locality, 
and it is really the first honey flow we net that we can take off for 
table use, and is the finest flavor of any we get. This is a business 
that to be successful must be looked after in every little particular, 
and I believe it can be made to pay almost any year." 

D. P. Noe, Burlington, Coffey county. ''The difficulty here is the 
constant winds. Too many bees are lost as they come home laden 
with honey, and swarms are thus diminished in workers. Alfalfa is a 
good honey plant. Alsike clover is one of the best. I have visited 
several bee-keepers and asked them why they do not sow all kinds of 
clover and plant linden, locust and fruit-trees, raspberries and black- 
berries. The excuse was, bees do not pay. Neither would any kind of 
stock pay on a farm if it had to hunt its own living." 

S. B. McGrew, Kossuth, Linn county. "The study of the honey- 
bee in its home and ways has always been a fascinating employment 
for my leisure hours. I have completely failed to secure an alfalfa 
crop after several trials. Linn county farmers, so far as I have 
learned, have had no success in growing it. The worst and only diffi- 
culty that I have met with is the lack of honey-produeinLi- plants in 
sufficient quantities for large numbers of colonies. I have done fairly 
well with my bees and would like to learn if there are any better plans 
than I have known." 

Oley Olston, Cimarron, Gray county. "Alfalfa is considered a 
good honey plant in this section upon irrigated bottom river land." 

J. P. Emery, Cimarron, Gray county. "I purchased two stands of 
Italian bees in spring of 1897. That fall I had increased them to ten 
strong colonies. I took off about 500 pounds of honey. Alfalfa is 
the main honey plant in this section upon irrigated bottom lands." 

E. Davison, Garden City, Finney county. "Alfalfa is the only 
honey-producing plant that we have in Finney county, with the ex- 
ception of fruit bloom in spring." 

P. H. Bollinger, Everest, Brown county: "I have forty stands of 
bees. Have found Italians to be best. Have never sowed anything 
but buckwheat." 
—7 



98 OBSERVATIONS BY APIARISTS. 

D. F. Young, Long Island, Phillips county: "I find alfalfa a great 
honey producer where there is a medium amount of moisture in the 
ground. I believe alfalfa to be a great honey producer, equal to white 
clover or buckwheat. Winter in cellar, and think this requires less 
honey for the winter." 

Wm. M. Bottom, Dexter, Cowley county: "Alfalfa is the best honey 
plant we have for all seasons ; not so good as white clover or buck- 
wheat, but the latter does not do well here. In my opinion, as soon 
as this southern and western country becomes settled up, and groves 
and orchards are planted and ponds built, rainfall will increase, and 
as the country grows older the raising of tame grasses will become 
successful, and with it profitable bee-culture." 

Joseph Huffman, Garden City, Finney county: "Alfalfa under 
favorable conditions is considered a good honey plant, We have not 
had sufficient irrigation in this section to test its worth as a honey- 
producing plant. Alfalfa in this country is a better honey-producing 
plant than white clover, sweet clover or buckwheat is in the eastern 
states. Quality of alfalfa honey is the best." 

A. L. Daniels, Allendale, Lyon county. "As to profit derived 
from bees, have not had enough to pay expenses and labor, but the 
pleasure of having pure honey of my own has kept me at work." 

J. W. Sutton, Glasco, Cloud county. "I took 1400 pounds of 
honey from twenty-six stands. We have a large amount of alfalfa 
here. I do not think bees make much honey from alfalfa, as I 
have failed to find many at work on it. I find that my bees make 
more honey when the corn is in tassel, but the alfalfa is in bloom at 
the same time. I have seen more bees at work on corn than anything 
else. Have not given bees special attention, but am beginning to 
think it will pay to give them the care they require." 

Capt. J. H. Wing, Syracuse, Hamilton county ; 150 colonies. "Ital- 
ians and hybrids. I have tried several stands of pure Cyprians and 
find their disposition quite objectionable. I fiad, however, that bees 
developed from these Cyprians crossed with Italians or Carniolans, 
crive, all things considered, one of the most satisfactory strains of bees. 
Alfalfa furnishes our main honey flow. The quality of the honey is 

second to none." 

some hive yields. 

Without any direct attempt at procuring the yields of the differ- 
ent apiaries within the state, or securing the highest yields, the re- 
ports here shown have come to the department giving amounts of 
honey produced. It is believed that these reports will be read with 
interest and will give a representative knowledge of what may be ex- 
pected from bees. 



SOME BEE STATISTICS. 



99 



It is regretted that the element of care and attention could not be 
expressed in figures alongside of the reports shown, for the old adage, 
' ; Keep your shop and your shop will keep you,"' is as true in apiculture 
as in any other line of business. 



Name. 


Address. 


Year. 


No. 

stands. 


Yield. 


J. W. Sutton 




1897 


26 


1400 pounds. 


D. S. Young 


Long Island.. 


1898 


( 3 new 
( 2 old 


64 




146 


S. A. Lakin 


Shaw 


1898 


1 


1 gallon. 

50 pounds comb per stand. 






fl896 


5 






-I 1897 




100 pounds comb per stand. 
40 pounds comb per stand. 
500 pounds. 
500 pounds (alfalfa honey). 






11898 




J. P. Emery 




189.X 


24 


H. H. Morten 






11 










$3 to $7 per hive of twenty sections. 

500 to 600 pounds. 

2000 pounds (1500 extracted and 500 comb). 

Common to have one colony prod'ce 200 lbs. 

5000 pounds. 

1075 pounds. 




Erie 




25 








40 


W. D. Fulton 














60 


Mrs. C. E. Anderson, 


Salina 


1895 


12 






C1894 




Average per hive, 70 pounds comb. 






1895 




Average per hive, 52 pounds comb. 
Average per hive, 23 pounds comb. 
Average per liive, 70 pounds comb. 






•1 1896 








1897 








1 1898 




F. H. Miller 






28 


1200 pounds. 

40 pounds per stand (alfalfa honey). 

800 pounds, at 10 cents. 


R. W. Smith 






22 








14 


Mrs. M. D. Hetzel. .. 






I 5 


72 pounds. 








Nearly as well. 






T1895 


4 


50 pounds. 




Phillipsburg, 


-{ 1896 


5 


300 pounds. 






11897 


6 


400 pounds. 



I had the pleasure of meeting Mr. Frank Rauchfuss, secretary of 
the Colorado State Bee-keepers' Association, at the Omaha associa- 
tion, and gained from him the following data, which will be read with 
interest by Kansas apiarists : 



100 



SOME BEE STATISTICS. 



RECORD OF COLONY No. 164, SEASON OF 1890. 
By Frank Rauchfuss, secretary Colorado State Bee-keepers' Association. 



Date. 



June 



July 



Aug. 



Weather. 



Clear and warm (a) 

Clear and warm 

Cloudy and warm 

Cloudy and windy (6) 

Clear and hot (c) 

Cloudy, and strong wind 

Clear and warm 

Clear, and strong wind after noon 

Rain and wind part of day 

Clear and hot 

Clear and hot 

Clear and hot (d) 

Clear and hot 

Clear and hot 

Clear and hot, cloudy after noon 

Clear and hot (e) 

Clear and hot, wind, and cloudy after noon. 



Clear and hot (/) 

Clear and hot, cloudy and cooler after noon.. 

Clear and cooler 

Clear and warm 

Cloudy and cooler 

Clear and warm, small shower after noon — 

Clear and warm, storm after noon [g) 

Clear and warm 

Clear and warm 

Clear and warm, cloudy after noon 

Clear and warm 

Clear and warm 

Clear and warm 

Clear and warm, some wind, and cooler 

Clear and hot (h) 

Clear and hot 

Clear and hot 

Clear and hot, windy and cooler after noon . . 

Cloudy and cooler 

Clear and warm, strong wind after noon 

Clear and warm, rain late in afternoon 

Clear and warm, cloudy and cooler after noon, 
Clear and warm, severe hailst'm after noon ( i) , 
Clear and warm, cloudy and cooler after noon. 

Clear and warm 

Clear and warm, rain after noon 

Clear and warm, rain after noon 

Clear and warm, cloudy after noon 

Clear and warm, rain after noon (j) 

Clear and warm 

Clear and warm, cloudy and cooler after noon, 

Clear and hot 

Clear and hot, windy and cooler after noon . . 
Clear and hot, windy and cooler after noon . . 
Clear and hot, windy and cooler after noon . . 

Clear and hot 

Clear and hot, windy and cooler after noon . . 

Clear and hot 

Cloudy and warm 

Cloudy and warm, windy and cooler after noon 

Clear and warm (k) 

Clear and warm 

Clear and warm, windy and cloudy (?) 

Cloudy and cool 

Clear and warm 

Clear and warm 

Cloudy and cool, some rain after noon 

Cloudy and cool, some rain after noon 

Cloudy and cool, some rain after noon 

Cloudy and cool, some rain after noon 

Cloudy and cool 

Rain 

Clear and warm 

Cloudy, cool, and wind 

Rain 

Fog, clear and warm after noon 

Clear and warm 

Clear and warm, some rain after noon 

Clear, cool, and wind 



Max. 


Min. 


temp. 


temp. 


88 D 


47 3 


93 


57 


97 


45 


97 


48 


99 


50 


87 


46 


86 


60 


87 


45 


86 


55 


101 


55 


98 


55 


99 


53 


105 


50 


101 


55 


103 


65 


107 


77 


109 


78 


1C0 


65 


100 


70 


105 


65 


99 


83 


100 


70 


91 


70 


100 


69 


102 


69 


98 


67 


105 


72 


106 


73 


106 


74 


102 


71 


104 


79 


108 


76 


110 


74 


105 


71 


107 


65 


106 


75 


104 


72 


103 


75 


103 


69 


100 


70 


101 


60 


106 


84 


103 


75 


103 


74 


92 


67 


90 


72 


94 


72 


100 


73 


99 


70 


111 


73 


109 


80 


107 


60 


98 


76 


103 


59 


104 


63 


100 


63 


100 


55 


101 


58 


105 


55 


105 


65 


103 


60 


99 


66 


101 


65 


104 


57 


103 


56 


99 


58 


86 


59 


99 


59 


96 


59 


95 


54 


96 


50 


86 


52 


80 


55 


87 


50 


97 


60 


95 


54 


97 


50 



Loss. 



Gain. 



iy 2 

3 

1 

3 

10 

8 
8 
8 
6 
6 
5 
5 
5 
8 
7 
6 
3 
2 
2 



m 

1% 

l l / 2 

4 l / 2 

2V4 

5 

SVi 

3 

1 

l / 2 
2/ 2 
2 



l / 2 
1 

2y 2 

2 

2 
2 

3H 
tVt 

VA 
3 

l>/ 2 
l l / 2 

2y 2 

VA 
4 

2y 2 



3 

i i / 2 



SOME BEE STATISTICS. 



101 



RECORD OF COLONY No. 164, SEASON OF 1890 -Concluded. 



Date. 


Weather. 


Max. 
temp. 


Min. 

temp. 


Loss. 


Gain. 


Total 
weight. 


Aug. 24.. 




98 
97 
99 
97 

105 
98 

109 
98 

103 
90 
95 
97 

100 
94 
94 
97 

101 
96 

101 
76 
97 
91 
98 
98 
96 
75 


57 
57 
50 
52 
51 
53 
60 
59 
59 
.VI 
49 
60 
62 
52 
44 
44 
49 
54 
36 
34 
38 
39 
46 
58 
51 
39 




2 
2 

3 
1 
1 

3 

1% 
2 l / 2 


142 


*• 25.. 


Clear and cool 


144 


" 26.. 




147" ' 


" 27.. 




148 x; 


" 28.. 




149^ 


" 29.. 




ism 


" 30.. 




1545-i 
156 

15,V.. 
159 


" 31.. 
Sept. 1.. 


Clear and warm, cloudy and cooler after noon, 


' ' 9 




" 3.. 




159 


" 4.. 






■1 


161 


' 5.. 


Clear, cool, and high wind 


161 


" 6.. 




1 


1 

iy 2 

3 

3V 2 

VA 

l A 


161 l A 


" 7.. 
" 8.. 


Clear and warm 


162'/* 
164 


" 9.. 




167 


" 10.. 




noyo 


" 11.. 




173 


" 12.. 




172 


" 13.. 




172% 


" 14.. 




172 Yt 


" 15.. 




l A 




173 


" 16.. 




172% 


" 17 . . 




173 


" 18.. 


Cloudy, high wind ( m ) 


98 



Total of honey secured, 182?4 pounds. 

(a) Large double swarm, put in ten-frame hive, on full sheets of foundation, extracting 
super with ten combs given. 

(6) Alfalfa in full bloom. 

(c) Bees flying well until seven in the evening. 
(d) Alfalfa suffering on account of lack of water. 
(e) Another extracting super added ; tare, twenty-seven pounds. 
(/) Small shower late in the afternoon. 
(<l) Extracted 65 3 i pounds of honey. 
(h) Second crop of alfalfa in full bloom. 

(i) Hailstorm destroyed most of the blossoms within two miles. 
(j) Bees commencing to work on cleome. 
(k) Extracted sixty-four pounds from scale hive. 
(/) Cleome in full bloom. 
(m) Extracted fifty-three pounds from scale hive. 



102 ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 

By A. H. Ddff, Lamed, Kan. 

PLAIN, SIMPLE, PRACTICAL AND ECONOMICAL METHODS OF HANDLING THEM FOR 
PROFIT, ESPECIALLY INTENDED FOR THE BEGINNER. 

The first question inay be asked, Who may keep bees, and where 
may they be kept ? Any one permanently located may keep bees, 
whether he may be a farmer, lawyer, doctor, minister, or a member of 
any other vocation, who may have a few spare minutes occasionally to 
look after the wants of his bees. Bees may be kept successfully to 
some extent almost anywhere, either in the city or country, and will 
be found profitable if attention is given them in the right manner. 
Some localities are better than others for bees, but there is scarcely 
any locality that man can exist, that bees will not do likewise. A 
few hives of bees may be kept, and require but little attention, that 
will furnish all the honey necessary for family use, and at a very 
slight expense. Bees work for nothing, and board themselves at the 
same time, so that the principal requirement is a storehouse for them, 
properly arranged to suit their habits. 

WHAT CONSTITUTES A COLONY OF BEES. 

A fair working colony of bees consists of about 25,000 to 35,000 
worker bees, a few hundred drones, and a queen. Daring springtime, 
and until after the honey season, they attain their greatest number, 
which may considerably exceed the above, after which time they gradu- 
ally decrease until they reach their lowest number, during the winter 
months. This may fall far below the above number. Ordinarily, 
a colony of bees reaches its lowest number in March, and its highest 
number in June. Drones are bred only during the honey or swarm- 
ing season after which they are killed off by the worker bees. The 
average life of the worker is about forty-five days, and the average life 
of the queen about two years. 

There is but one queen in each colony and ehe is the only fully 
developed female in it. She is the mother of the entire colony, laying 
all the eggs that produce every bee in the hive. Two kinds of eggs 
are deposited by the queen, one kind being fertile and the other 
infertile. Three kinds of bees are hatched from these eggs, the 
fertile egg producing queens and worker bees, and the infertile egg, 
drones. The fertility of the queen remains the same throughout her 
life, never receiving fertilization but once ; hence, produces the same 
stock during her existence. The queen has a sting, but seldom uses 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. L03 

it except in battle with other queens. Two queens cannot occupy 
the same domain; their presence is a signal to each other for battle, 
and their meeting, under any circumstances, is sure death to one or 
the other. 

The drones are the male bees. They do no work whatever in the 
hive : nature did not intend they should. They are not provided with 
a weapon of defense, neither provided with a honey sac to carry honey, 
nor a tongue to reach the nectar in the flowers, nor pollen baskets to 
carry pollen, nor wax pockets to secrete wax. They are simply invet- 
erate loafers in the hive. They come forth from the hive during tlnj 
middle of the day, and at the same time virgin queens take their 
flight. 

The worker bee is truly the "busy bee," and in sex is an undevel- 
oped female, but is usually termed neuter. The busy bee does all 
the work ; it gathers all the honey, the pollen, the propolis or bee-glue, 
carries water, secretes wax and builds comb, prepares food and nurses 
the young brood, defends the hive, cleans house and performs various 
other duties. If the workers ever take a rest, either night or day. from 
all the duties of the hive, no one has ever yet found it out. 

Tiie worker bees may be placed in three different classes, namely : 
The honey gatherers, the comb builders, and the nurse bees. They 
are thus classed as to age. The first work the young bee performs, 
after it is two or three days old, is to prepare food and feed the larva 
in the cells. The next duty, when ten or twelve days old, is to secrete 
wax and build comb. When about twenty days old they become field 
workers. This applies to a well-regulated colony that is in first-class 
condition in all respects. 

In thus briefly going over the work of handling bees for one year. 
we will begin with spring management, follow with summer and 
autumn management, and close with winter management. As an- 
nounced in starting out, our object principally was to help the 
beginner, the small bee-keeper, and farm bee-keeping generally ; hence 
it will be necessary to go over considerable ground of the first prin- 
ciples of bee-keeping, which to the well-informed apiarist would seem, 
to some extent, stale reading; yet when we take into consideration 
that this work will go into the hands of hundreds uninformed on this 
subject to one informed, we hope that the expert will bear with us. 

EARLY SPRING MANAGEMENT OF BEES. 

The most critical period of the whole year with bees is in early 
spring, just about the time warm days begin to put in an appearance. 
With the long confinement of winter and the endurance of severe 
weather, bees are very tender and easily discouraged, and, if \rery 
weik, they will dwindle down and become less in numbers so rapidly 



104 ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 

that the hatching brood at this time will not keep up the force of bees. 
This results from improper fall and winter management, of which I 
will have something to say later on. Colonies of bees should be of 
proper strength at all seasons of the year, and at no time are weak 
colonies desirable. We may not have this entirely under our control 
during the winter season, but largely so ; for if we go into winter 
quarters with weak stocks we will surely come out with them much 
weaker in spring. 

If colonies are reasonably strong in early spring, and have good 
fertile queens, with plenty of provisions in store, there is nothing to 
fear with regard to their coming through in good condition and prov- 
ing profitable the following honey season. In making an examination 
of colonies at this time, ascertain, first, if the queen is present, and 
if she is depositing eggs, and if brood-rearing is progressing to some 
extent, and, also, as to amount of honey in the hive. If a colony 
is found without a queen now, and no queen at hand to supply it, it 
is absolutely useless to allow it to remain as a colony. The proper 
thing to do is to unite it with some other colony that has a queen. 
In such a case as this we can strengthen some weak colony that has a 
queen, by uniting with it. The process of uniting would be simply 
placing the queenless hive on top of the other hive, supposing of 
course that we use the common frame hive, when the bees will almost 
immediately go below to the queen. If any remain on the combs, 
they may be brushed off with a stiff feather and the upper hive re- 
moved. 

It is a common practice to contract the space in the hives, and 
especially so in case of weak colonies, by division boards, which ac- 
company almost all frame hives. This economizes the natural 
warmth of the bees, and enables them to rear more brood, and keeps 
them in more comfortable quarters. In handling the frames of comb 
at this season of the year we should be very particular when return- 
ing them to the hive to put them back in the same place and position 
they formerly occupied, so that the brood will be in a compact form 
and not separated or changed ; for in case it should be thus separated 
and the cluster of bees were not able to cover it thoroughly, it would 
of course be lost. 

In early spring bees should be inspected and handled only on 
warm days, when they are flying freely. In no case should hives be 
opened up and the bees disturbed at any other time. In every case 
after handling a colony the hive should be carefully and thoroughly 
closed, and during this period of springtime the entrances to all hives 
may be contracted to a small space with benefit to the bees. 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 105 



STIMULATIVE FEEDING. 



It is to be presumed that every colony has an abundance of reserve 

stores in the hive, and that reserve should consist of ten or fifteen 
pounds of sealed honey. If they are short of this amount, they should 
be fed. After warm weather predominates it is no trouble to feed 
bees, but until this occurs, but little if any feeding of syrup can safely 
be done. The term "stimulative feeding'' applies to feeding for 
brood rearing, and is done at regular intervals during springtime, 
when the bees are unable to gather honey on account of either cool 
weather, or a shortage of nectar in the flowers so they cannot gather 
honey. Queens invariably stop laying eggs and brood-rearing ceases 
when the honey flow stops, and then again begin the rearing of brood 
when the bees begin gathering honey. Now in stimulative feeding 
we imitate a natural flow of honey, and if we feed thus at times when 
the bees are idle, the queens keep right on laying eggs to their ut- 
most capacity, governed of course by the strength of the colony. 

Food for bees should consist of the best grades of sugar; granu- 
lated sugar is the best, and perhaps the cheapest. To prepare syrup 
for this purpose, add water to sugar, equal parts of each by measure, 
and heat thoroughly, but do not boil it, but bring it nearly to the boil- 
ing-point. It may be fed warm, but not hot. For stimulative feeding, 
about half a pint to a strong colony is sufficient each and every day, 
given during such times as the bees are idle, from the time warm 
weather opens in spring, until the beginning of the natural honey flow 
of the season. Colonies thus brought up to the beginning of the 
honey harvest are fully twice as strong as those not so treated, and the 
result is that these colonies will store hundreds of pounds of honey 
while the others store tens. 

Various kinds of feeders are used for feeding bees. The best and 
most simple, and a feeder that any boy can make, is made from a 
block of soft wood rilled with holes one or two inches in diameter put 
nearly but not quite through the block, thus forming a trough, and 
the partitions between the holes are footholds for the bees, and pre- 
vent them from drowning in the syrup. This feeder may be made 
just the size to fit on top of the hive, covering the entire top of same, 
and a few holes in center of block put clear through for the bees to 
come up to get the feed and then pass down again. This feeder 
should be incased in an upper story added to the hive, with the lid 
on same to confine the bees inside and also prevent other bees getting 
in from the outside. The proper time to feed bees during the day is 
very late in the evening, and as late as we can see to do the work. 
Where many colonies are together it causes quite an uproar, and 
sometimes when fed during the day it produces robbing, but is always 



106 ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 

done with safety thus in the evening, as the syrup is all stored away at 
night, and all is quiet in the morning. 

The hives which are in general use, and which are her.-- illustrated, 
have a capacity of about 2000 cubic inches. It is not presumable 
that the brood chamber alone of this dimension is large enough to 
contain extremely strong colonies at the beginning of the honey flow, 
or up to the time we would add surplus boxes. It would be a fatal 
mistake to try thus to confine such stocks of bees in a single story 
alone, and the result would be a severe case of swarming. The 
proper method to pursue would be to add another story the same in 
all respects as that of the brood chamber, with a set of frames of 
comb, or foundation comb, and use both stories for brood and honey 
combined, and at the beginning of the honey harvest put all brood 
frames below and add two tiers of section boxes to take the place of 
the upper story removed, if comb honey is the object; if to be run for 
extracted honey, retain the upper story, but put all brood frames be- 
low and bring up from below all frames of honey. No harm what- 
ever comes of having some brood in the combs above, for the extractor 
will remove the honey without injuring the brood, if the extractor is 
properly handled. 

It should be borne in mind at all times that strong colonies are the 
means which bring about large honey crops, and the ordinary method 
with the small bee-keeper, of letting his bees do as they please, and as 
they can, without his help, will not bring the immense profits ob- 
tained in many instances by those who get a proper understanding of 
their management and apply the same. I do not pretend to say that 
bees will not be of some value and give good returns frequently on 
the let-alone plan ; but if a thing is worth doing at all, it is worth 
doing right, and this rule is not a failure in the management of bees 
by any means. 

THE BEE VEIL AND SMOKER. 

The apiarist equipped with bee veil and smoker considers him- 
self master of the situation. The bee veil is but little used at present 
by the practical worker in the apiary ; it has to a great extent been 
laid aside with the rubber gloves, which have also been used largely. 
But every one who keeps bees should have a bee veil in case of neces- 
sity, and not this alone, but he should always have a veil to accommo- 
date visitors, and in every case of this kind bring it into use. A veil 
made of any veiling stuff will do. and one for rough and ready use 
may be made from common mosquito netting. A rubber band should 
be in the top to hold it firmly around the hat crown. 

The principal defense lies in the smoker, being the apiarist's clos- 
est and best friend. No colony of bees will put up a tight against 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 



107 




Fig. 8. Bee veil and smoker. 



smoke properly applied. Bees, when smoked, will become excited, 
and they seem to conclude that they are going to be robbed, and they 
readily give up and make a rush to the combs for as much honey as 
they can contain, and thus fill themselves full, and when in this con- 
dition they cannot, or at least do not, attempt to sting. Any one can 
master bees by simply learning how to use the smoker on them. The 
smoker should not be brought into use every time you are handling 
bees, for almost throughout the entire honey season they may be han- 
dled as well, or even better, without it. As for myself, I scarcely use 
it at all during this period. 

THE HONEY SEASON. 

All bee-keepers, as a rule, know just about the time the principal 
honey flow of the season begins in their locality. While the time may 
vary a little in different localities, yet it is a noticeable fact that the 
bulk of the surplus honey crop of the United States is obtained dur- 



108 ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 

ing the month of June. There seems to be something about the 
balmy atmosphere of the month of June that not only deposits more 
nectar in the flowers, but of a better quality, and hence June honey, 
both in quantity and quality, excels all others. 

If, at the beginning of the honey season, we decide that we, do not 
want an increase in the number of our colonies, but that a crop of 
honey is the only thing in view, we must bend our energy in that di- 
rection, and work accordingly. To obtain the largest honey crop, it 
is necessary to prevent swarming to a great extent, if not exclusively. 
The idea is to put our entire force of bees down to storing honey, and 
no foolishness in the way of new swarms to start up housekeeping at 
the expense of the honey crop. 

Swarming is prevented in more than one way, and the proper thing 
to do right at the beginning, and that time is when the colony becomes 
so strong that they are cramped for room in the lower story or brood 
chamber, is to add the upper story, even if a little in advance of the 
honey harvest. The first thing that puts bees in the notion of swarm- 
ing is lack of room in the hive, and at all times throughout the entire 
season this must be carefully looked after, and abundance of storage 
room given at all times when bees are storing honey. This alone is 
the principal secret of large honey crops. It not only prevents swarm- 
ing to a great extent, but the bees are never prevented from storing 
honey for want of space. 

Space alone will not prevent swarming, but only to a certain ex- 
tent, The principal method used to prevent swarms is the removal 
of all queen cells at the proper time from the combs. Bees will 
swarm in eight days after the construction of queen cells begins. 
These cells become very visible after they are five or six days old, and 
may easily be found and removed from the combs. The removal of 
these cells will prevent the swarm from issuing except in very rare 
cases — so rare, that it need not be taken into consideration. If these 
cells are allowed to remain, the young queens reach maturity in the 
larval state in eight days, at which time the cells are sealed over, and 
the swarm is due to come off. Hence, there will be seen the time 
when action must be taken for their removal to prevent the swarm 
from issuing. In most cases the bees will immediately again begin 
constructing more queen cells, to be followed by removal as before. 
It is only exceptional colonies that will thus torment us in trying to 
swarm, as the largest per cent, of them will be content to store honey 
without attempting to swarm, if they have plenty of storage room. 

If in thus making an examination of the frames of comb and re- 
moving the queen cells we should happen to overlook a cell, we will 
surely be rewarded with a swarm, for one cell alone in the hive is 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 



109 



fully sufficient to bring out a swarm. In such cases we may return 
the swarm, but the cell must be hunted up and taken out or the swarm 
will come again. The most convenient time to secure this cell is 
when the swarm is out of the hive, as it can be more readily found, 
the bees being out of the way. When bees thus take the swarming 
fever they will not do as well at storing honey as they do otherwise, 
and in some cases of the most persistent swarmers I would advise 
hiving them in a new hive to themselves. And also in cases of ex- 
tremely strong colonies, that seem to be so numerous that a two-story 
hive will scarcely contain them, if such colonies attempt to swarm 
I would hive them also, as such swarms will give better results sepa- 
rated. 

HIVES AND APPLIANCES FOR HONEY PRODUCTION. 

The illustration herewith (fig. 9) represents modern hives of the 
latest pattern now in general use in the production of honey. The 
hive proper is a modification of the old Langstroth hive, the frame be- 
ing identical, or nearly so, to that of the former. The frame seen at 




Fig. 9. Hives and appliances for honey production. 



110 ONE YEAK AMONG THE BEES. 

7, leaning against the front of the hives, in dimension is seventeen and 
five-eighths inches long, and nine and one-eighth inches deep. The 
body of hive is designed to hold eight of these frames and is a box 
without top or bottom, nine and a half inches deep, thirteen and seven- 
eighths inches wide, and twenty inches long, outside measure. The 
inside top edge of the end pieces are rabbeted out, thus letting the 
top bar of frame drop down one-fourth of an inch lower than the up- 
per edge of hive. To facilitate handling, metal rabbets should be 
used for the frames to rest on, by cutting the rabbet one-fourth of an 
inch deeper than actual measurements, and then tacking in place a 
piece of folded tin to the required height. The entrances to these 
hives are made by nailing slats three-eighths of an inch thick to the 
bottom board, at the sides and at the back end, the front being left 
open. 

In the illustration (fig. 9) 11 is a hive equipped for extracted 
honey, and 12 is one rigged out for comb honey. Having just arrived 
at the honey season, we will first take up the subject of comb-honey 
production. As previously stated, in order to reap a rich harvest of 
honey it is absolutely necessary to have colonies of bees in proper 
condition, by being strong in numbers, having a large amount of 
brood in the hive, and the queen laying eggs at the rate of from 1000 
to 3000 a day. 

To raise comb honey, and have it in good marketable shape, we 
must use the section box. And right here the question may arise, 
Will it pay the small bee-keeper or the beginner to go into all these 
little details and bring into use all these fixtures we have here brought 
out ? In answer to this. I will say emphatically that it will, and it is 
only necessary to test the matter once to convince you fully. We 
have simply here shown a few articles, what we consider actually 
necessary for the small bee-keeper, and nothing more. The preserv- 
ing qualities of comb honey lies in the section box exclusively, and 
in no other manner can it be retained any length of time in perfect 
condition. The section boxes in general use are made to hold one 
pound of comb honey. They are four and one-fourth inches square 
and one and seven-eighth inches wide. These section boxes, and 
crates holding the same on the hives, are shown at 12; .', is the 
brood chamber, or lower story of hive ; 4- just above it, is the first 
crate of sections, and S is the second crate of sections, and what we 
call a hive with two tiers of sections. Each crate holds twenty-four 
sections, and two tiers will make forty-eight one-pound boxes occupy- 
ing the hive at one time. We do not use less than one tier of sec- 
tions, and scarcely more than two tiers. 

The amount of storage capacity used depends upon the strength of 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 



Ill 



the colony. The colony should be strong enough to occupy at once 
the boxes given, and it is only a very small per cent, of colonies that 
can take two tiers of boxes at the beginning, but, in most cases, one 
tier of sections is first placed on the hive, and when the bees are well 
at work in them, say half full or more, then add the second tier. This 
second tier is not usually placed on top of the first, but the first is 
raised up, and the empty one is placed under, as in this manner the 
bees being already in the upper one, must occupy both tiers at the 
same time, when otherwise they would be slow to go above into the 
empty boxes. In fig. 9, S shows a crate of boxes standing on end with 
a few boxes removed (and, by the way, we here show two kinds 
of crates, which we will explain further on, but will say the one rep- 
resented as being on the hive is the "section holder" crate, and the 
one standing on end is the "T" crate or super); 2, hanging on the 
corner of hive, is one of the section holders, and is again shown on the 
top of hive holding three sections, one being out of place. There are 
six of these, holding four sections each, in a crate. The sections as 
seen on the hive are furnished with foundation comb, and the manner 
of doing this work is seen in the following cut. 

THE PARKER FOUNDATION FASTENER. 

Figure 10 shows the "Parker"' foundation fastener No. 4; 8 is a 
section rest and gauge to hold the section in place, so that the fast- 
ener may strike the section exactly in the center, and by pressure 
fasten the foundation in place ; 1 is a section fully supplied with 
foundation, at least according to my notion. Some may differ a little 
with me in the use of so much foundation in a section, as many use 




Fig. 10. Parker foundation fastener. 



112 ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 

merely a starter of about half an inch at the top only, but perhaps 
all will agree with me that the double starter is the best. I fasten a 
three-eighths-inch piece on the bottom, and bring it to within one- 
half of an inch at the bottom, as is shown in cut, with the top starter. 
As the bees work it out, it will stretch until it will nearly, but not 
quite, meet, if the best thin foundation is used. It will thus make 
the best union, and a section thus furnished will make a good, smooth, 
solid section of honey, the difference being more noticeable when the 
flow of honey is rather moderate or uneven. At 5 is seen a pile of the 
raw foundation honeycomb. 

Foundation comb is one of the most valuable inventions of modern 
bee-culture. For the benefit of those who are not well acquainted 
with it I will say, that it is made of pure beeswax, and molded out 
in very thin sheets, and then passed between rollers having dies of 
the exact size and shape of the base or the natural honeycomb, thus 
leaving the impression of the base of the cell on the sheet of wax. See 
figure 20, further on, and you will see comb 1 representing the raw 
foundation, and comb 2 one day's work by the bees. We will explain 
this more fully when we reach it. 

No one who pretends to keep bees should be without this founda- 
tion comb. It has been said that bees consume twenty pounds of honey 
to produce one pound of wax, and more conservative writers figure 
it down to fifteen pounds ; but just think of it, the price of foundation 
is on an average about forty-five cents per pound. Now, if one pound 
of this will save fifteen pounds of honey, is it not plain enough that 
it pays well to use it ? Not only this, but by its use we can have 
frames of comb straight as a board, and every inch of it worker founda- 
tion besides, and we are not bothered with thousands of worthless 
drone bees in the hive ; this it prevents, as you are doubtless aware 
of the fact that bees cannot rear drones in worker comb, but must 
have the large drone cells to rear them in. 

SUPER FOR HOLDING THE SECTIONS. 

The super here shown for holding the sections on the hive, similar 
to what is called the "T super," I consider one of the best. It holds 
the sections in place better than any other I have used. The super, 
when filled with honey, is more rigid, and less liable to become loose 
in handling, and the sections of honey are more easily removed from 
it. The illustration shows the bottom of crate, the section rests, and 
a few sections in place. The section rests are made of a piece of wood 
three-eighths of an inch thick and three-fourths of an inch deep, with 
a strip of tin one inch wide tacked on the narrow edge of the same, 
the tin being one-fourth- of an inch shorter at the ends. These sec- 
tion rests are held in place by a wire staple driven in super as shown 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 



113 




Fig. 11. Super for holding the sections. 

in cut. The section rest out of place and leaning against the center 
one shows the extension of the tin strip on each side of the same. Tin is 
also supplied at the ends of super for the same purpose. When sepa- 
rators are used they may be dropped down between the sections, and 
rest on the section rests. A following board is used, and the sections 
are keyed up tightly in place in the usual manner. 

THE SECTION-HOLDER SUPER. 

This is a super largely used at present, and one that has many good 
features. The illustration shows the six holders, five of them in posi- 
tion in the crate, with the following board at the bottom and wedges 
under the same, one holder out of place and lying on top of crate. 
With this holder the sections are less liable to become soiled, as but 
one side of section is exposed. These holders filled with sections are 
held in the super by wedging up with the following board. This 
wedging keeps them nicely in place when empty, but when they be- 
come filled on the hives there is more or less shrinkage of the parts, 
and when you pick up the whole super to move it the outside shell 
usually comes, leaving the inside gearing on the hive. This can be 
removed by sections. This is of course easily removed, and this point 
is one of the good features of the section holder. Bees when storing 
surplus honey will usually fill the sections directly above the brood 
nest first, and thus the center sections are completed long before the 
ones on the outside rows. With the section holder those inside can 
be placed outside, and the empty sections are brought to the center, 



1H 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 




Fig. 12. The section-holder super. 

by simply exchanging the position of holders. The supers of either 
of these crates are the same, and are the same dimensions as that of 
the hive proper, except they are just one-half the depth. Two of 
these empty supers make a hive, and are frequently used as such on 
a scarcity of hive. They have rabbets cut in them for the frames to 
rest in when thus used. 

SECTION BOXES, SHIPPING CRATES, ETC. 

In figure 13, 2 is a crate of 500 sections, as shipped from the manu- 
facturers; S shows the section box, with the three saw cuts making 
the corners after being folded ; 4 is a section partially folded, the dove- 
tailed corners to be brought up and hammered together to complete 
it ; 5 is a shipping case for sections of honey, and on top of same 
are three sections of honey. 

HIVES COMPLETE. 

In figure 14, 1 is a hive with two tiers of sections, being a complete 
two-story hive for comb honey. Each super holds twenty-four one- 
pound boxes, making forty-eight pounds surplus storage capacity. 
While as a general thing but two tiers of sections are used, yet more 
may be used, and thus for the time being several supers may be stored 
one above the other. This must not be considered ample storage capac- 
ity for the season by any means, for frequently colonies will store sev- 
eral times this capacity during the honey season. The proper method 
to pursue is to remove the honey just as soon as it is completed. As 
previously stated, begin with one tier of sections, and when the bees 
have these half full or more add another tier of boxes by raising the 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 



115 




Fig. 13. Section boxes, shipping crates, etc. 

first and placing the empty ones next to the bees. They will thus 
fill the upper tier first and have it all completed and capped over some 
time before the lower one is full ; but perhaps about this time the 
lower tier is full enough to be raised up and an empty one added 
again. After removing supers and taking out the boxes, if any are 
not completed return them by using them to make up another super. 
These uncompleted sections are a good bait to induce the bees to take 
hold again ; this they usually do more readily when uncompleted sec- 




FiG.lt. Hives complete. 



116 ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 

tions are present. It is not necessary to wait until the outside sec- 
tions of the super are sealed over, for the bees oftentimes refuse to do 
this under any circumstances, and these can be put in the center of 
the next crate advantageously, as explained above. 

If you have had some experience, you can judge pretty closely the 
time when the honey season will close, and if nearing the end you must 
think fast and work accordingly, or you will be left with quite a 
quantity of unfinished sections to carry over to another year. Now is 
the time to condense and get your sections nearest completed together 
as much as possible, and get them on your best comb-honey-building 
colonies. I say your best "comb-honey builders." Can there be a 
difference in colonies like this? you ask. Yes, and all closely observ- 
ing apiarists well know this, and know the colonies that they prefer to 
put the finishing touches on comb honey. These colonies, like some 
people, never stop until their work is completed ; they seal up their 
honey as soon as the combs are full and the honey is ripe, while oth- 
ers are slow to complete by sealing the combs, and especially when 
nearing the end of the honey season, they seem to almost stop busi- 
ness and let everything go wide open. But do not grieve over a lot 
of unfinished sections, for if we are out the cash they would have 
brought us at the present if finished, they are worth it all with good 
interest to carry over for the purpose of giving us a good early start 
with the next spring. 

In figure 14, 2 is a two- story hive as arranged for extracting. This 
hive is better seen at 11, in figure 9. A hive for extracting is simply 
two brood chambers. But we want the brood in the lower story, and 
frames of comb for the surplus honey in the upper story. In figure 9, 
6 shows the upper story as arranged for the extractor, with eight frames 
of comb, one of the combs resting on top of hive. The hive standing 
on end at the back, and marked 9, simply shows the bottom of a 
hive, and the manner the frames should hang thus evenly spaced to 
insure good manipulation of the combs. 

THE EXTRACTOR. 

The extractor (fig. 15) was invented about the year 1865, but is yet 
little known among the class of small bee-keepers. Scarcely any one 
who keeps but a few colonies of bees thinks of getting an extractor. 
This can also be set down safely as a mistake among the bee-keepers 
on a small scale. I will say that any one having as many as five 
colonies of bees will, with the use of an extractor, in one season get 
by its use enough additional honey to pay for it. 

It has always been a query to many why extracted honey sells for 
less than comb honey. This question has already been answered in 
our discussion upon comb foundation. By the use of the extractor we 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES 



117 




Fig. 15. The extractor with inside gearing raised up and exposed to view. 



save all the comb, and the saving of a pound of comb is equal to the 
saving of fifteen pounds of honey. Wax is not gathered from flow- 
ers in any quantity that bees see fit to carry it in, but it is a produc- 
tion of their own, produced by the consumption of their food, honey. 
Wax is formed in the bee on the same principle that fat is formed in 
an animal, the difference being only in the locality in which it is 
deposited. Each worker bee has six wax pockets located between 
the rings on the under side of the body, three on each side of the 
dividing line in center of body. Wax forms in these little pockets 
in disks resembling small fish scales, and can plainly be seen during 
the comb-building season, protruding from these wax pockets. Now 
there are, perhaps, many who will read this, and who used to keep 



118 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 



bees, and may do so yet, and have hived swarms in old log-gums and 
square boxes, and the next morning in looking in, by tipping up the 
box, to see if the bees were there, discovered on the bottom board a 
large quantity of these scales, and wondered how they came there. 
When bees swarm they are, to their fullest extent, equipped with 
these tiny wax scales, stored up for future use, and when thus hived 
in an empty box, and on beginning to start their combs, they thus 
from some cause drop a large number of these scales. 

It has been said, by good autuority, that we can double the number 
of pounds of honey by extracting that we would otherwise get in comb 
honey. If not altogether double the amount, we can certainly get con- 
siderable more ; then why would it not be advisable for the small bee- 
keeper to thus increase the quantity of honey from his few hives of 
bees ? Producing extracted honey is less complicated and more sim- 
ple than producing comb honey. 

EXTRACTING HONEY. 

The illustration (fig. 16), shows the simple process of extracting 
honey from the combs. The operator on the right, with a long, thin- 
bladed knife, is shaving the cappings from a frame of comb that has 
partially been sealed over. He hands the frames of comb to the op- 
erator on the left ; he, placing one in each comb basket, turns the 
crank and the reel inside revolves around a few times, thus forcing 
the honey from the outside of the comb by centrifugal force ; when 
he reverses the comb baskets, thus turning the other side of comb 
outwards, extracting it also. The combs come out without being in 
any way injured, and are placed back in the hive to be refilled again 
by the bees. 




Fig. 16. Extracting honey. 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 119 

In removing the frames of honey from the hives of bees, we limit 
ourselves to the upper story, exclusively. We never extract honey 
from the brood chamber, but leave all that is stored there for the use 
of the bees. There has been considerable discussion with apiarists 
for some years past in regard to the proper time for extracting honey, 
with special reference to the condition of the same in the combs. 
Honey, when first gathered by the bees, is thin and unripe, and by 
letting it remain in the combs until the bees seal it or cap it over, it 
becomes thoroughly ripe. If taken from the comb soon after being 
deposited and before it is sealed over, it frequently is so thin that it 
will sour : but in most cases it will ripen into a fair quality of honey 
in time, if kept away from dampness. By extracting before the combs 
are sealed up, it saves considerable labor, not having to uncap the 
honey and the extracting being more easily done. It is now generally 
conceded that the proper time to extract is about the time of the seal- 
ing of the combs. Some extract when the bees begin sealing, and 
some just after the combs are well sealed. 

The most extensively used packages for handling extracted honey 
are square tin cans holding sixty pounds each, and are shown on the 
left in figure 16. The most popular small package, for retailing, are 
Mason's glass fruit-jars, and also quart and half-gallon tin cans. For 
a small local trade, the common tin fruit-can, holding a quart, is the 
cheapest, and is in every way very convenient. Having a large open- 
ing, this can will admit of removing the honey in granulated form, and 
such cans may be filled and placed away until cold weather and the 
honey will be formed in a sugary mass resembling lard. All ex- 
tracted honey will granulate during autumn and winter, and many pre- 
fer to use it in this form, but if not desired in this form, it may easily 
be brought back to liquid by placing the package containing it in hot 
water. It must not be boiled, but simply heated until it returns to 
liquid. 

The large can shown on the right of the picture with the faucet, is 
very convenient for filling small packages, and also for retailing in 
small amounts. All extracted honey should be thoroughly strained, 
and no strainer made of wire will give as good satisfaction as a piece 
of thin muslin or cheese-cloth made in the form of a bag, about ten 
inches long, holding perhaps five pounds of honey, the weight of 
which forces it through the cloth. 

HIVING SWARMS. 

It has been the common practice, when the bees swarm and settle 
on trees — and they usually settle on fruit-trees — to cut off the branch 
containing the swarm. This is not only laborious, but it is a great 
damage to fruit-trees, and many valuable trees from this cause have 



120 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 



been permanently disfigured. Just procure a small box — one hold- 
ing about a peck — and put several holes in it to give the swarm ven- 
tilation, and add a handle some eight to ten feet long to it, so that 
you may be able to reach up some distance with it. Push it against 
the cluster of bees and dislodge some of them at the same time, and 
they will readily go into your box. If they seem to be reluctant 
about it, give the branch a jolt with your box and dislodge most of 
the swarm, and then push the box up close to their clustering place. 
When the bees get well in the box, lower it and shake the remaining 
bees off the branch, and all will go into the box, when it may be taken 
to the hive ready to receive them. In hiving them, first brush a 
small quantity of them down near the entrance of hive, and these 
will usually go right in and will give the call to the others, when the 
whole army will move in this direction. When they get well started, 
shake them all from the swarming box, and they will go in the hive. 
When bees are thus swarming be very careful and handle them 
kindly. Do not kill a bee if you can well help it, as they have but- 
one queen, and their whole welfare depends upon her; you might by 
rough handling kill her. 




Fig. 17. Hiving swarms. 



Bees cut up many very interesting pranks at swarming time. 
Swarms will come out frequently, and then return again to the parent 
hive. They may do this every day for a whole week perhaps, but not 
usually so often. When a swarm thus returns, the queen has not ac- 
companied it, and I have had queens that absolutely refused to thus 
come with the swarm, and apparently nothing whatever to prevent 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 121 

her. Queens, on account of bad wings, cannot fly with the swarm, 
and this occurs very often. They come out and crawl off on the 
ground, and sometimes are lost entirely. In this case, of course, the 
swarm returns also. When the queen comes out with the swarm and 
cannot fly, as in this case, the bees very frequently find her, as the odor 
of queens is very attractive to the bees, and if you are very careful to 
look all around in the vicinity where the swarm has been you may see 
a little handful of bees gathered up in a ball ; then you can almost set 
it down as a certainty that the queen is inside the ball. 

In case of swarms returning, they may be hived readily by removing 
the parent hive after the swarm has come out and putting an empty 
hive in its place, and the bees will walk right into the new one. But 
they must have a queen, and you can hunt out their own queen and 
put her in with them, providing she remained in the parent hive. The 
parent hive is then in the same condition as if the swarm came off 
with the queen, and it can be placed back at its old stand and the 
new one removed elsewhere. 

In the above we speak of old queens only, and of first swarms, as 
the old queens always come with the first swarms ; but second swarms 
containing young virgin queens are also guilty of the same tricks, and 
it is more like "tricks" with them, for they are active on the wing. 
More than one virgin queen may come with second swarms, as they 
emerge from the cells several in number at the time of the swarm's 
issuing ; and right here is a nice little thing to make a note of. The 
young queens are kept imprisoned in their cells by the bees, and but 
one of them allowed at liberty in the hive, to prevent their killing 
each other ; they thus keep them in their cells until the swarm is ready 
to come off, at which time they seem to allow them their liberty, or at 
least let a portion of them come out, and in this manner several of 
them may come out with the swarm, and thus come out, too, not being 
out of their cell perhaps five minutes. Or, in other words, we may say 
they swarmed with the bees, not being over five minutes old. But in 
this case the queens were kept imprisoned maybe twelve or twenty- 
four hours, or even longer, after they matured and were ready to come 
out. In all cases of second or after swarms thus having several 
queens issue from the hive with them, they settle down to business 
with but one queen, and the others will be found dead at the entrance 
of the hive a few hours later. 

PUTTING HIVES TOGETHER. 

The illustration ( 18 ) for putting hives together, and getting them 
perfectly square and exactly to the place before nailing them, explains 
itself. It is made of two-by-four stuff, well braced and spiked, and is 
readily made with ordinary tools, and can be made by any one. The 



122 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 




Fig. 18. Putting hives together. 

hive is first put in place, and wedged up tightly to its proper shape, 
and when thus nailed it will take a hard knock to change it. Any 
style of hive, whether dovetailed or any other style of corner used, 
may thus be put up squarely and in proper shape. 

QUEEN-CELLS AND QUEEN REARING. 

Figure 19 is an ordinary frame of comb, and on it are seen queen- 
cells from the time they are commenced until they are completed. 
At 1 is a cell about four or five days Old, 2 is six or seven days old, 
and at 3 we have one completed at eight or nine days old ; and it thus 
remains until the queen hatches, at sixteen days. Two others still 
younger may be seen on the comb. This comb was used in what we 
call artificial queen rearing; that is, these cells were built here by 
the bees out of season, and not during swarming time, nor under the 
swarming impulse. They were built here as an absolute necessity by 
a queenless colony to produce a queen, as any colony will do at any 
reason of the year if they have brood in the combs young enough to 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 



123 



produce a queen. Natural cells, as we call them, are produced only 
during the swarming season, and while the bees have the swarming 
fever. Then' is no difference in the cells, nor in the queens they pro- 
duce, but usually there is a difference in the locality on the combs 
which these queen-cells occupy. In building queen-cells in natural 
swarming, the bees, having the entire work under their own manage- 
ment, select the edges at the ends and bottom of the combs, usually, 
to construct these cells, and also in uneven and broken places in the 
combs, and these cells are scarcely ever found on a smooth surface 
near the center of the combs, as in the illustration (fig. 19). I men- 
tion this fact, so that, if you are hunting the combs for queen-cells in 
swarming time, you will not be misled by the location of same. 




Fig. 19. Queen-cells and queen rearing. 

There is no difference between an egg deposited by the queen to 
produce a worker bee and an egg deposited by her to produce a queen ; 
they are one and the same. They are also the same after the egg 
hatches into larva ; but at this point the change begins to occur : and 
if you give a queenless colony that has no young brood of its own a 
frame of comb containing worker-eggs or larva? as usually found in a 
hive, they will at once begin to construct queen-cells around a few of 
these eggs, just as you see in figure 19, and in course of time pro- 
duce as many young queens. This change is brought about by the 
bees changing the shape of the cell, and also administering a different 
kind of food and especial care to the larvae. In extreme cases bets 
will take larva? three or four days old and change them to queens, but 
such queens are not considered the best. 

Now, i'ii the above plan, you have our method of artificial queen 
rearing. Queens may thus be produced any time during the summer, 
.spring and autumn included, or while warm weather continues. First 



124 ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 

take a colony that does not have a queen, or you may remove the 
queen from any colony that has the proper brood in the combs, and 
this colony will proceed at once to thus build cells. When these cells 
are sealed up, and at any time before the first queen hatches out, they 
must be cut out of the comb and kept entirely separate, for immedi- 
ately after the first young queen is out, she will hunt up these cells, 
and tear them open, sting the young queens yet in the cell, and thus 
destroy them. The proper time to separate the cells is about two 
days after they are sealed over, which occurs on the eighth or ninth 
day, which would make the cells ten or eleven days old. They will 
hatch out in sixteen days, providing the brood was not over three 
days old from the time the eggs were deposited, but if a day older, 
they will hatch that much sooner. 

To care for these queen-cells we must form nucleus colonies ; that 
is, we take one or two frames of bees and brood, and make a small col- 
ony, containing no queen of course, and engraft one of these cells in 
the comb, and thus accommodate each queen-cell with one of these 
nuclei. Full colonies must be drawn upon to form these nuclei, 
and one colony will make several of them. These cells hatch and 
the young queens will become fertile and begin laying eggs in ten 
or twelve days, when they may be removed and introduced into full 
colonies, or these nuclei containing them may be built up into full 
colonies. During swarming time is the best time to raise queens, as 
many hives now have a number of natural queen-cells in them, and 
we can utilize them and produce a large number thus. I have a pref- 
erence for natural cells, but am not able to prove them any better than 
the others. One drawback to raising queens out of season is the sup- 
ply of drones. We cannot raise queens without drones ; that is, the 
queens will not become fertile, and of course are worthless ; but usually 
there are drones enough retained to answer the purpose. We can pro- 
duce drones at any time by feeding, but this is rather expensive ; but 
one thing we can do, and that is retain them, by keeping colonies that 
have a large number of them queenless, for a queenless colony will 
not kill their drones. 

FEAMES OF COMB FOUNDATION. 

Figure 20 shows something that I think is of considerable value 
and' importance to the bee-keeper. Here are two frames of comb 
foundation. Frame No. 1 shows a sheet of raw foundation just fas- 
tened into the frame, and the bees have not done any work on it. 
No. 2 shows a frame of foundation that the bees have worked on just 
ten hours. It was placed in a strong colony in the morning, and 
taken out in the evening. Examine it closely, and see how perfectly 
these cells have been drawn out. In these ten hours the cells were 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 



125 



lengthened out just one-eighth of an inch over the entire surface of 
comb and on both sides, thus making it a little over one-fourth of an 
inch thick. I am unable to understand why any bee-keeper can allow 
his bees to build their own comb, or use mere narrow strips of foun- 
dation as starters in the frames, and thus have crooked, unsightly 
combs, and oversupply of drone comb, which is always followed by 
an oversupply of drone bees. 




Fig. 20. Frames of comb foundation. 



It will be noticed that these frames are wired. Three strands of 
fine wire are drawn through the frame, by piercing the end pieces in 
the center and passing the wire through and fastening the same at 
each end with a small tack. The wire must not be drawn up tight, 
so as to sound like a violin string when you touch it. It must be 
slack, scarcely drawn up straight, for if tight the comb will buckle, as 
it stretches as the bees work it out ; so that the wire must be slack 
enough to stretch with the comb when the bees are working it. The 
top of the foundation is fastened to top bar of frame by pressure, the 
wax adhering to the wood when pressed against it. The sheet of 
foundation should not reach the bottom by half an inch, as it will 
stretch nearly this much in working it. In No. 2 a mere trace of the 
lower wire may be seen. The wire is imbedded in the comb by a wire 
imbedder made for the purpose. 

FEEDING BEES. 

Various kinds of feeders are used for feeding bees sugar syrup. 
I have tried almost everything that I have seen recommended, and 
the above simple arrangement suits me better than any other. It is a 



126 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 



two-inch soft white-pine plank filled with holes not quite through, thus 
forming a trough, and the partitions between the holes make a good 
foothold for the bees, so that none are lost by drowning. It may be 
made any size, but I prefer it just large enough to cover the entire top of 
hive neatly, and a few holes in the center put clear through for the bees 
to pass up and down. It is placed in an upper empty story, and with 
the lid on all is secure. In the illustration the side of the upper 
chamber is removed to show the feeder in place. This may be easily 
improved for a cool-weather feeder, by nailing a strip around the up- 
per out edges, half an inch high, and dropping a cover down on this, 
which will give the bees good working room under it ; and then fill 
the upper story with a chaff cushion or old clothes, and thus retain 
the natural warmth of the bees. 




Fig. 21. Feeding bees. 



HOUSE APIARIES. 

The illustration (fig. 22) shows the location of hives of bees in a 
building. I should, perhaps, not say "house apiary," as house apia- 
ries are generally known as very fine, expensive constructions, very 
peculiarly erected, and the more peculiar the better. But leaving 
out the peculiarity, and getting down to practical business, I use 
"any old house," and after having experience in handling bees in a 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 



127 



building, I could not be induced to again adopt outdoor apiaries. 
Figure 22 shows a section or corner of a room containing hives ; 2 is 
a bottom board from which a hive has been removed. The hives sit 
two inches from the wall, and the bottom is arranged after the fashion 
of the chaff hive, and may be packed away in chaff during winter as 
a still better protection. •>', shows sheets of legal- cap paper tacked to 
the wall, for the purpose of keeping a register of each colony. This 
is very important, and is a great help in the manipulation of colonies, 
to know exactly their condition by simply glancing at the register. 
This will frequently save a half hour's work spent in opening and ex- 
amining them, and often furnish information that could not be found 
by an examination, such as time of swarming, number of pounds 
honey taken, age of queen, when young queens will hatch, quality of 
queen, tested or untested queen, queen purchased of whom, imported 
queen, selected breeders, etc., etc. 4, shows nucleus hives containing 
one or two combs, and some bees for rearing queens, nailed up against 
the wall, and a small hole put through the siding for the bees to pass 
out and in. These I have previously explained under queen rearing. 
They may be used as well outdoors, in ordinary hives ; and when one 
or two frames are thus used in a hive, an adjusting board to adjust 
the required space in the hive can be used. 

I will name some of the advantages as I see them in keeping bees 





1 1 3 1 l " 1 

k H 

It 1 


WTI 



Fig. 22. House apiaries. 



128 ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 

in a house. The first and most important thing is, that you are al- 
most entirely safe from bee stings. Bees will scarcely attempt to 
sting you in a building, and you will certainly get ten chances of be- 
ing stung outdoors to one in a building, at the least estimate. You 
can handle bees in any kind of weather in the house, and as you are 
entirely out of the wind you can do your work much better. You are 
never bothered with robber bees poking in the hives when you have 
them open, and every apiarist knows how difficult it is to manipulate 
bees out of the honey season on account of robber bees. And for the 
same reason you can remove honey from the hives, change the section 
boxes of honey about, and handle the honey by putting it up in pack- 
ages, and extract out of season ; all this work is performed, and no 
robber bees to bother you. Occasionally we will have some bees in- 
side when handling them ; but place bee escapes on the windows, or 
in absence of this a few holes or cracks in the wall, or even a door 
open a minute, will cause them all to fly out. If the house is so that 
you can darken it to some extent by closing the doors and windows, 
the bees that are inside will in an instant hunt a hole to get out. You 
can thus clear the house of bees at once, and it would surprise you 
how quickly they will go. Wire screen should of course be on win- 
dows, doors, and all openings. By turning a key in the door your 
whole apiary and all implements are secure from thieves, and espe- 
cially is this of great advantage when apiaries are kept away from 
home. 

Another inexpensive way of keeping bees, and also a way in which 
to obtain nearly all the advantages of the house apiary, is to construct 
a small building ten feet long, six feet wide, and six feet high. This 
will accommodate eleven colonies of bees — five on each side and one 
at the end. On each side, where the hives sit, should be a floor of 
boards, and the center where you stand to operate should be ground 
floor. I have used two tiers of hives in such a building, thus having 
twenty-two colonies in it. but it is not convenient for handling the 
upper tier, and I would not recommend it. Houses like this will not 
cost any more than chaff hives enough for the eleven colonies, and is 
superior for winter use, as the entire building may be filled with 
chaff, or used in any quantity desired. House apiaries, as usually 
constructed, are very long buildings, and the result is, that the bees 
become lost as to their proper place of entering ; the hives at the ends 
of building get the most of the stray bees thus, and these hives be- 
come very strong, while the hives in the center of building become 
weakened. This has always been a strong argument against house 
apiaries ; but on the plan above given, not having more than a dozen 
hives facing one direction on the same line, obviates this difficulty 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 129 

entirely, in my experience. Painting the entrances of the hives with 
different colors has been said to remedy this trouble to some extent, 
as the bees are attracted by the different colors. 

OPENING HIVES AND HANDLING THE BEES. 

Now, my friends, right here is where we must exercise a little nerve 
The apiarist who is accustomed to doing this work does not need any 
toning up of his nerves, and neither will you if you have performed 
the job a few times. But one not accustomed to the work, and who 
undertakes it in an ordinary way, would be likely to get into serious 
trouble, and if you found out just the proper way of doing it by actual 
practice alone, it would be some time before you would make a com- 
plete success of it. While bees are frequently handled without 
smoke, yet the oldest apiarist has his smoker always at hand, and I 
would advise the beginner not to begin without first procuring a good 
bee smoker. If you are armed with a good smoker, and it is properly 
equipped for business, you can everlastingly whip any colony of bees 
into subjection on short order. 

A great many people who do not take the trouble to post them- 
selves on the subject of bees have very peculiar ideas about them. 
They will tell you that Mr. Soandso can handle bees and do anything 
he wishes with them, and the bees never sting him, but Mr. Some- 
body cannot go in sight of them without being stung, as bees have 
a special dislike for him, etc. Now, such ideas are handed down 
from one generation to another, and become instilled in the minds of 
people as actual facts, when the fact is, it is all a mistake. It is true 
that some people will receive more stings from bees than others, but 
the reason of this is altogether in the manner the person conducts 
himself when about them or working with them ; so that if Mr. Some- 
body adopts Mr. Soandso's method of handling them he will receive 
no more stings than the latter. Bees do not know one person from 
another. I do not believe they know the apiarist that works with 
them every day for years from any one else, except that they get ac- 
customed to his manner of handling, and if he is not an expert in this 
line a stranger that is an expert can take his bees and handle them at 
once with less stings than the owner. When a boy I was taught that 
only persons that were endowed with supernatural power could handle 
bees. Having inclinations in that direction myself, I was told by one 
of these "bee tamers'' that I might be slightly endowed with this 
miraculous power, and I really thought, or at least hoped, I was. But 
after bringing my influence to bear rather heavily on a colony of bees 
soon after, I was nearly stung to death: hence this theory exploded 
with me early in life. 

If we wish to handle bees successfully and without stings we must 
—9 



130 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 




Fig. 23. Opening hives and handling bees. 



handle them carefully. First, open the hive, without jarring it, if 
possible. If the lid is glued fast — and it never will be if you keep a 
good, sound cloth under the lid and over all of the frames and top of 
the hive — but if it is, pry it up as easily as possible. After removing 
the lid, take one corner of quilt and draw it up ; and, by the way. al- 
ways take it up first at the side of hive farthest from you and draw it 
toward you, as seen in the illustration. Now, it is supposed you have 
your smoker in readiness, providing you need it, and if the bees come 
running up and boiling out between the frames on top, take your 
smoker and give them a few light puffs of smoke and send them back 
down again. If they seem to stay down pretty well you may go on 
with your work, but if they come back up as before, drive them down 
again with the smoke with a little more positiveness. Usually, by 
this time, you are master of the situation, and you may remove the 
quilt entirely and take out the frames, or any frame you desire. The 
frames are usually fastened with bee-glue, and when the weather is a 
little cool you will need something to pry the frames loose and, for 
this purpose, a screw-driver will answer nicely. When taking out 
the first frame, spread the frames on both sides of the one you wish 
to take out so that the frame will lift up clear, and not rub or be 
squeezed with the frames beside it, thus killing bees on removing it. 
Draw the frame up slowly and replace it in the same manner. 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 



131 



REVERSING THE COMB. 

This illustration simply shows how you may turn the comb over 
without releasing your hold, for the purpose of examining the reverse 
side. Please notice the smoker in this figure ; it is in proper position 
to hold fire. Fuel for smokers may consist of cotton rags. Old, thin, 
worn calico or muslin is good, but dry, rotten, spongy wood is still 
better. The fire-box of the smoker should be full of fuel before light- 
ing it, and if the fire is well started, and the smoker set down in posi- 
tion as seen in the cut, it will hold fire several hours and be ready at 
any minute to furnish smoke. The smoker here illustrated is known 
as the "Clark's Cold Blast." It is one of the cheapest, costing only 
about half as much as many others, and I consider it one of the best. 




Fr«}. 24. Reversing the comb. 



CLOSE OF THE HONEY SEASON. 

There will be found some important work to do immediately after 
the close of the principal honey season. The first thing on the pro- 
gram with bees, after the honey harvest, is to pry around to see if they 
can find a colony to rob. Just at this time they are not likely to 
be disappointed, for frequently there is such. Colonies that are in 
danger are those that have no queens, or very weak colonies ; perhaps 
some of these nuclei in which we have been raising queens. Every- 
thing along this line must now be looked up, for we do not want them 



132 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 



to get a start of this kind, as they will everlastingly keep it up if they 
get a taste. To prevent it, we must furnish all colonies with good 
fertile queens, and make examination of every one to ascertain if they 
have laying queens. When bees become queenless they will not de- 
fend their stores, and robber bees soon find them out. We must not 
leave honey lying round carelessly or have it stored where the bees 
can reach it. All cracks and crevices about the hives except the en- 
trance proper must be closed, and very weak colonies may have the 
entrances to their hives contracted, so they can better defend them. 
Queens now will cease laying to a great extent, and the hives that 
contain spring hatch of queens will be about the only ones that will 
continue to lay eggs and keep up their colonies in fairly good 
strength. Queens over two years old had better be removed, and also 
all others that failed to do good service during the honey season, and 
replaced with young, fertile queens of the present year's raising, if we 
can produce or procure them. We should be able to rear our own 
queens, so we can thus keep up our stock in the best of order without 
going to the expense of buying them. But we can if we wish pur- 
chase them in any quantity, as there are plenty of apiarists who make 
a business of rearing them for sale. At this particular season of the 
year they are usually sold at one dollar each, or ten dollars per dozen, 
for good, tested Italian queens. 




Fig. 25. Outside view of house containing bees, showing 
the entrance to the hives. 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 



133 



Colonies that do not have stores enough to carry them through the 
winter, and honey not at hand to give them, should be fed during the 
month of September. They should be thus fed early, in order that 
they may be able to thoroughly seal up the stores given them while 
the weather is yet warm. Granulated sugar is the proper food for 
them, and in no case should they be fed cheap brown sugar on which 
to winter. The sugar should be well melted by adding water and 
allowing it to reach the boiling-point. The syrup may be made of 
about the consistency of thin molasses, and given them daily until 
twenty-five or thirty pounds are stored in the hive. The best time of 
day to feed bees is late in the evening ; just as late as we can see to 
do the work. Feeding during the day is an incentive to robbing, and 
at night there is no danger, and by morning the work is all done and 
the bees all quiet. 

CELLAR WINTERING. 

Many winter their bees in a cellar. But this is generally practiced 
by specialists, and it usually takes the expert to make a success of it. 
A cellar for bees should be for them exclusively, and it would be very 
risky to undertake to winter bees in a cellar used for all purposes. A 
cellar may be so arranged by partitioning off a part of it for the bees 









/ 


■ # 


'— ' ""J 




MH 










~m 

























Fig. 26. Cellar wintering. 

exclusively, but it must be well separated from the other part, The 
cellar where bees are kept must be kept in utter darkness at all times, 
except occasionally when we wish to make examination of the bees ; 
then we may use lamplight. 

The illustration, figure 26, shows the manner of placing the hives 
in a cellar. The foundation is made of two-by-four scantling, placed 



134 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 



fourteen inches apart, and the hives are set on these, leaving a space 
between them of about eight inches. The next tier of hives is placed 
directly over this space, and so on as high as wished. The bottom 
boards are not used on the hives, but left open thus for ventilation. 
In this manner the dead bees and all accumulations drop down and 
entirely out of the hive on the lid of the one below it, where it may 
be brushed off and thus kept clean. The hives thus arranged prevent 
the bees from getting together, as they will not venture from their 
combs far enough to thus get together. The proper temperature to 
keep a cellar for bees is about forty-five degrees. Bees should be 
placed in the cellar just on the beginning of severe winter, and put in 
place by very careful handling. 




Fig. 27. Chaff hives and outdoor wintering. 



CHAFF HIVES AND OUTDOOR WINTERING. 

It will be observed throughout my articles here that I use consid- 
erable economy and advocate cheapness in many things, and I will 
frankly admit that I am not in the bee business for my health but for 
the actual profits that are in it, I have frequently, in my writings, ad- 
vocated common dry-goods boxes for chaff hives. Figure 27 is one 
of them. I knocked the side out of it so you can see how to put your 
hive of bees in one of them. The hive is also tipped up a little side- 
wise to show you how the bottom board is fixed. It certainly needs 
no other explanation, only that the side is put back and the entire 
box, all around the hive, under and above, is filled with chaff and a 
good, water-tight cover put on the same. When completed it looks 
just like figure 28. 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 



135 




Fig. 28. Chaff hive, complete. 



CHAFF HIVE, COMPLETE. 

If you would tell a farmer that he must send off and buy chaff 
hives for all his bees, at a cost of perhaps two or three dollars each, 
I want to ask you how many of them will do it. But if you tell him 
to get dry-goods boxes at the store, and show him how cheaply and 
easily he can convert them into chaff hives, he will be pretty sure to 
get them, and his bees will be fixed up in first-class order, for there is 
no chaff hive made that will beat it for actual service. This is not 
only a winter hive, but a summer hive as well, and intended for an 
all-year-round hive. It is not only useful, but ornamental. 

COLONY OF BEES READY FOR SHIPMENT. 

Full colonies of bees may be safely shipped at any time from early 
spring until late autumn, but never in winter. Figure 29 represents 



136 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 




Fig. 29. Colony of bees ready for shipment. 

a colony put up to ship any distance by express during the hottest 
days in summer. The half story added on top, covered with wire 
gauze, gives an empty chamber for the bees above the frames of comb, 
and the entrance to hive is also covered with wire cloth, so that they 
have all ventilation required. They may be thus safely confined 
several days, and shipped across the continent in perfect safety. 

INTRODUCING QUEENS. 

A colony of the worst type of the old black bees may be changed 
to the highest state of perfection by simply removing the black queen, 
and introducing an Italian queen in her place. If a queen is thus in- 
troduced in early spring, there will scarcely be a trace left of the old 
stock in midsummer. There is always some risk of losing the queen 
in introduction by the bees being dissatisfied with her and killing her. 
In almost all cases when the new queen is at once liberated among 
them immediately after the removal of the old one they will destroy 
her. It takes a prolonged method to induce them to accept her prop- 
erly. It is necessary first to remove the queen, and be absolutely cer- 
tain that the colony is queenless. Then with the new queen placed 
in a wire-screen cage, and placed in the hive near the brood nest, 
it is allowed to remain some thirty-six or forty-eight hours, after which 
time she may be released among the bees. In some instances the bees 
will not yet accept her, but will begin treating her very roughly and 
will attempt to sting her; but they do not sting her thus, but form in 
in a compact ball around her, and thus remain until they seemingly 
squeeze the life out of her. When they thus begin to ball around 



ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 137 

her, the bees may be smoked away from her, and she may be placed 
back in the cage to remain perhaps another twenty-four hours, when 
the same process is repeated. 

This is the general course taken in introducing queens, but at the 
present time queen breeders have what they call "introducing cages." 
These cages are so arranged that candy is placed in the entrance, and 
the bees in time, by eating out the candy, themselves liberate the 
queen, and chances are taken as to her safety. By introducing an 
Italian queen thus to a colony of bees, the whole stock becomes pure 
Italian, and as the queen never changes her stock the bees will be the 
same as long as she lives and is of service in the colony. 

DIVIDING BEES FOR INCREASE. 

There is not such a mania for dividing bees at the present time as 
in former years. After the introduction of the Italian bees into this 
country, the demand for them was immense, and those who bred them 
used every effort to increase their colonies, and dividing was princi- 
pally practiced. Since the bees have become numerous and cheaper, 
apiarists have turned their attention to raising honey, and to increas- 
ing more moderately by the process of natural swarming. 

Natural swarming will always give better results than dividing, but 
if you have some strong colonies that do not swarm, and you want 
more colonies, you can very easily divide them, and do it successfully 
too. You may divide one colony into several parts and build them all 
up to good, strong colonies : but at the same time, I would only cut it 
in two. This is done by simply lifting out half of the frames of comb 
containing both brood and honey, and placing them in a new hive. As 
there is but one queen, she will be in one or the other division, and 
if we have an extra queen to introduce to the queenless half, so much 
the better. If we have no queen, the combs containing brood of the 
proper age, the bees will rear one for themselves. A little more than 
half of the bees should go with the new colony, as many of the old 
bees will return to the parent hive, or former location, and the new 
hive thus will remain rather weak, and will not do much work for 
several days on this account, 

WINTER CARE OF BEES. 

Bees should be in winter quarters, if chaff hives are used, long be- 
fore cold weather sets in, and early in autumn is the best time to 
prepare the hives for winter. When the cellar is used, they should 
not be placed there until just at the beginning of steady winter. When 
bees are thus placed in good winter quarters they need but little atten- 
tion during the same. Bees must be kept perfectly quiet in cold 
weather, and at no time should the hives be opened or in any way 



138 ONE YEAR AMONG THE BEES. 

molested when the weather is so cold they cannot fly. On a warm day, 
when they are flying freely, the hives may be opened or any work 
done that is necessary, but only when necessary even on these occa- 
sions. Snow will do no harm to bees when drifted about the hives, 
not even if the hives were totally covered with it, but serves as a good 
protection in severe cold weather. Some people are so foolish as to 
get out with shovels and shovel away the snow, thus disturbing the 
bees and possibly doing them irreparable damage. A thorough ex- 
amination of all colonies should be made during the first warm spell 
of weather in March, and if any need food or will soon need it, take 
a note of it and provide the same. 

It has always been a question in my mind why it is that there are 
so many homes without bees. There is no diet more delicious or 
healthful than honey. The great Giver of all good has provided that 
the earth, with its annual offering of fruits and flowers, shall yield us 
a bountiful supply of the royal nectar, and has also furnished the lit- 
tle harvesters to gather it in. Only furnish them a home and a store- 
house, and they will without money and without price supply you 
with the most delicious of all sweets. 



DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES. 139 



DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES. 

Foul-brood (Bacillus alvei) is a germ disease which may be 
found in all stages, from the egg to the adult bee. Owing to the fact 
that the bacilli, very minute organisms, multiply very rapidly, the 
disease spreads incredibly fast, and is therefore the most-dreaded 
malady of the hive. 

Its presence among the larv?e may be very certainly detected by 
examining a comb of honey containing the growing larva?. If these, 
instead of being plump and of a pearly whiteness, are yellowish or 
brown or shriveled, foul-brood may be suspected. The larva soon 
dies, and shrivels into a flattish black scale. If cells having sunken 
caps are opened and a dark brown, stringy, putrid mass is found, and 
if there is an odor similar to the oppressive odor given off from some 
varieties of liquid glue, foul-brood may be considered the cause of the 
unnatural condition. 

In larva?, the disease is very acute, embracing all parts of the body, 
probably on account of the thinness of the membrane. In the adult 
it may be more localized, and consequently will be longer in running 
its course. Bees which are nearly dead are almost bloodless, while the 
air sacs expand as the muscles decrease, and nearly fill the whole body. 
Workers, drones and queens are liable to attack. If the queen is 
inflicted with the disease, she will transmit it to the egg. Hence the 
very rapid destruction of the colonies when once attacked. 

Remedial treatment, to be effective, must be heroic. Those who 
cannot for a time devote themselves entirely to the work of stamping 
out the disease had far better destroy the affected colonies. For 
others of their own apiary will soon be infected and the colonies of 
the neighborhood are endangered. 

Culling out infected brood-comb, removing bees to new hive, 
dequeening in order to get rid of a probably diseased queen, adding a 
new queen, then starving the colony until some of the bees fall from 
exhaustion, is a method frequently effective. Many other methods 
are to be found in the various works upon apiculture. The Cheshire 
plan, however, has proven itself of great value, and is herewith given : 

"To place the food, with added phenol, on the hive, will, however. 
do nothing in the greater number of cases. If honey be coming in, 
the bees will not touch it ; but open the stocks, remove the brood- 
combs and pour the medicated syrup into those cells immediately 
around and over the brood, and the bees will use a curative quantity of 
phenol. In my experiments I inoculated a stock, and allowed it to 



140 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES. 

get into a bad state, then inserted a comb of store in the center of the 
brood-nest, and treated one side, from which the disease disappeared, 
but raged, although with abated fury, in the other half. Having, by 
these and many similar experiments, made the curability of Bacillus 
alvei a certitude, and having ascertained that - 4 J-- - of phenol could be 
given to the bees without limiting the queen in breeding, or touching 
her health, while 5 -f 1(1 dispatched the bacillus quickly when the honey 
was coming in, and ? i when it was not, I, in the interest of apicul- 
ture, requested the British Bee-keepers' Association to provide me 
with a bad case, fully attested. 

"It arrived late, June 21, 1884, with seven combs, about half a pint 
of bees, and a queen cell which I saw at once contained a dead larva 
only. Amidst crowds of bad cells, scarcely any living brood was visi- 
ble. A casual counting of one of the best frames gave 371 dead larva? 
on one side. The odor was pronounced. The case needed confidence ; 
it was bad indeed. With me, queenlessness presents the worst of all 
obstacles. No grubs, no physic, no cure ! I had stipulated that the 
stock should have a queen, and so the difficulty was greater than I 
had anticipated. Early next morning, seeing the utterly disheartened 
condition of the poor bees, I went to a nucleus, took out a very fine 
Italian mother, just proved as purely fecundated, and putting her 
under a dome cage on a card, placed the card over the frames. The 
bees came up and seemed to see in her a new hope. The cage was 
lifted and she was welcomed immediately. I waited three days, till 
she was regularly laying, giving syrup phenolated 1 in 500 : and 
now. since I could not create bees, added two combs of brood. This 
step was made necessary by the fact that I required a strong hive by 
the time of the congress. The bees were now shut up by a division 
boa'd ; but the combs put behind it, waiting introduction as the bees 
multiplied, smelt so badly — the weather being hot — that I several 
times sprayed them w T ith water 200, phenol 1. Now, I should com- 
press the bees as much as possible, and spray the removed combs 
freely with water 50, phenol 1. 

'"Every evening the medicated syrup was given, by pouring around 
the brood-nest ; but only so much as would be likely to be used, the ob- 
ject not being to fill the cells, but to get the food converted into bees. 
The smell vanished ; the bees became active and earnest. The comb 
with 371 dead larva? on one side was last added, and in six days I 
could only find five sunken caps in the whole of it. Now and again 
a grub took disease, but quickly perfect immunity was the issue. No 
cell was uncapped, no diseased grub removed, nor hive touched, except 
as described. The bees cleaned their floor and their combs : while, in 
four weeks and two or three days, every frame became filled with 



DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES. 141 

brood in the brightest and best possible condition. Since this, worse 
oases have succumbed in the same fashion. Abundant corroboration 
has been given from those who have tried my method, and have suc- 
ceeded, to their own delight, while some failed; but the testimony is 
general, that bees under phenol become more energetic than those 
that need no treatment. 

•'The quantities are easily managed: One ounce of phenol crystals 
(carbolic acid No. 1 ) will be sufficient for forty pounds of syrup, one- 
fourth ounce for ten pounds, or one-fourth ounce of liquid carbolic 
P. B., for nine pounds of syrup, or rather less than three quarts. The 
carbolic acid should be added to the syrup when the latter is cool, 
and mixed equally by careful stirring." 

The Wax-moth ( Galleria mellonella Linn.) is an unwelcome 
guest among the bees and rarely gains admission to a strong colony. 
The weak colonies are chosen places for the deposition of its eggs. 
One of the highly commendable features of the Italian bee is that it 
ever and always repels the encroachments of this moth. This moth 
deposits its eggs in the comb, on propolis, or sometimes without the 
hive and the young worms are left to run the gauntlet at the entrance. 
The intelligent bee-keeper will keep his colonies strong, will permit 
no superfluous comb to remain in the hive, and none to lie carelessly 
exposed around the apiary for the reception of eggs. His trained eye 
will be ever on the alert for evidences of the presence of the moth in 
and about the hives. His constant care and supervision of his bees, 
together with their strength and activity, make the moth of little con- 
sequence in the well-kept apiary. 

Ants, ivasps, spiders, toads, lizards and mice prey upon the 
workers : the amount of loss is never great. The home of the of- 
fenders can generally be located near by and the occupants routed. 
Birds are not so destructive as was formerly supposed. 



142 HONEY- AND POLLEN-PRODUCING PLANTS. 



PRINCIPAL HONEY- AND POLLEN-PRODUCING PLANTS OF 

KANSAS. 

*Willows, (Salix). March-May. 
Red or Soft Maple, (Acer rubrum). March- April. 
Redbud, (Cercis canadensis). March -April. 
Elin, ( Ulmus). March -April. 
Alder, (Alnus rugosa). March-April. 
Dog-tooth Violet, (Erythroniwm albidum). March -April. 

* Apricot, (Prunus armeniaca). April-May. 
Juneberry, {Amelanchier canadensis). April-May. 

*Crimson Clover, (Trifolium incarnatum). April-May. 
Dandelion, {Taraxacum officinale) . April -May. 
Gooseberry and Currant, (Ribes). April-May. 
Pear and Apple, (Pyrus). April-May. 
Wild Crab-apple, (Pyrus). April-May. 
Peach, Cherry, and Plum, {Prunus). April-May. 
Rhododendron, (Rhododendron) . April-May. 
Pines, (Pinus). April -May. 

* TULIP-TREE, (Liriodendron tulipifera). May. 
American Holly, (Ilex opaca). May. 

C< >mmon, Black or Yellow L( >cust, ( Robin ia pseudacacia) . May 
Black Gum, Sour Gum, Tupelo, or Pepper idge, (Nyssa aquatica) 

May. 
Raspberry, (Rubus). May-June. 
Persimmon, (Diospyros virginiana). May-June. 
Grape-vines, ( Vitis). May- June. 
Alsike Clover, (Trifolium hybrid"///). May- June. 
White Clover, (Trifolium rep ens.) May- June. 
Strawberry. (Fragaria). May. 
Cow-pea, ( Vigna sinensis). May- August. 
Linden, or "Linn," (Tilia americana). June. 
Catalpas, or Indian Bean Trees, ( Catalpa). June. 
Chinquapin, (Castanea pumila). June. 

* The relative importance of the plants as honey and pollen producers is shown 
by the type used. Of least importance are those in plain body type ; the itali- 
cized next, and the capitals, in accordance with size. 



HONEY- AND POLLEN-PRODUCING PLANTS. 143 

Magnolia, or Sweet Bay, {Magnolia glauca) . June. 

Oxeye Daisy, or Whiteweed, {Chrysanthemum leucanthemum) . 

June -July. 
SOURWOOD, or SORREL Tree, ( Oxydendron arboreum). June 

July. 

Milkweeds, (Asclepias). June- July. 

ALFALFA, ( Medicago sativa ) . June - September. 

Teucrium canadense, {American Germander, Wood Sage). July. 

Cucumber, Melon, Squash, Pumpkin, ( Cueumis, Citrullus, and 
Cucurbita). July -August. 

Indian Corn, {Zea mays). July- August. 

MELILOT or SWEET CLOVER, {Melilotus alba). July-Au- 
gust. 

Knotweeds, {Polygonum, especially P. pennsylvanlcuni and P. 
persicaria). July -September. 

Monarda fistulosa, ( Wild Bergamot). July-September. 

Buckwheat, {Fagopyrum fagopyrum) . August- September. 

Goldenrods, ( Solidago). August -October. 

Bur- marigolds, (Bidens, especially Spanish Needles, Bidens hi- 
pinnata). August- October. 

Thorough wort, or Boneset, {Eupatorium perfoliatum) . August- 
October. 

Wild Aster, {Aster). August -October. 

Cleomella augustifolia. August. 



144 BEE BOOKS AND JOURNALS. 



BOOKS AND JOURNALS RELATING TO APICULTURE. 

BOOKS. 

Langstroth on the Honey-Bee. Revised edition, 1889. By Chas. Dadant & Son. 

Quinby's New Bee-Keeping; or The Mysteries of Bee-Keeping Explained. 
1884. By L. C. Root. 

The A B C of Bee-Culture: a Cyclopedia of Everything Pertaining to the 
Care of the Honey-Bee. By A. I. Root. 

The Honey-Bee: a Manual of Instruction in Apiculture. By Frank Benton. 
Published by United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Entomology. 

Advanced Bee-Culture; its Methods and Management. By W. Z. Hutch- 
inson. 

Bees and Bee-Keeping, Scientific and Practical. By Frank R. Cheshire. In 
two volumes: Vol. i, scientific: vol. ii, practical. Published by L. Upcott Gill, 
London, England. 

The Bee-Keeper's Guide; or Manual of the Apiary. By A. J. Cook. 

A Modern Bee Farm and its Economic Management. By S. Simmins. Pub- 
lished in London, England. 

The Blessed Bees. By John Allen. 

Bee-Keeping for Profit. By Dr. G. L. Tinker. 

JOURNALS. 

The American Bee Journal. Weekly. Chicago, 111. 

Gleanings in Bee Culture. Semimonthly. Medina, Ohio. 

The Modern Farmer and Busy Bee. Semimonthly. St. Joseph, Mo. 

The Bee-Keepers' Review. Monthly. Flint, Mich. 

The Nebraska Bee-Keeper. Monthly. York, Neb. 

The American Bee-Keeper. Monthly. Falconer, N. V. 

The Progressive Bee-Keeper. Monthly. Higginsville, Mo. 

The Southland Queen. Monthly. Beeville, Texas. 

Kansas Farmer, apiary department. Weekly. Topeka, Kan. 

The Western Bee-Keeper. Monthly. Denver, Colo. 



INDEX. 



A. PAGE. 

Acridinw 10 

Acridium differentiale 63 

Alfalfa Irrigation and Land Company 11, 51, 53 

' ' culture with reference to prevention of grasshoppers 51- 53 

" as a honey plant 84 

' ' seed crop, influence of bees on 82 

' ' yields of first and second crop on disked land 53 

Ames, E. E 18 

Anabrus sp 30 

Analyses of various kinds of honey 79 

Anatomy of Melanoplus differentialis 39- 48 

" external 39- 44 

' ' internal 44- 48 

Anderson, Mrs. C. E 88 

Ants 141 

Apiculture, books and journals relating to 144 

Apis mellifica 68 

Appliances for honey production 109-11 1 

Artificial queen rearing 122 

Asilid fly 37 

Atchison county 91 

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railway 1 

Aughey, Samuel 30 

B. 

Bacillus alvei 139-141 

Balch, J. C 91 

Ball, H. E 51 

Ball & Goddard 1 , 51 , 59 

Barton county 93 

Beal, F. L. M 30 

Bee products 74 

bee-bread 74 

bee-glue 74 

honey 75 

royal jelly 74 

silk 75 

wax 75 

Bee veil 1C6 

' ' smoker 106 

Bees, diseases of 139, 140 

' ' dividing for increase 137 

' ' enemies of 141 

" handling 129, 130 

' ' queenless, actions of 130 

' ' ready for shipment, colony of 135 

' ' winter care of 137 

" year with, a 102-13^ 

Beetles, predaceous 31 

Bennett, C. A. D 91 

Bibliography of Melanoplus differentialis 62 

Birds, preying on bees 141 

145 I 



146 INDEX. 

Blacksnake, grasshoppers food of 30 

Bollinger, P. H 97 

Books relating to apiculture 144 

Bottom, Wm, M 98- 

Bourbon county 91 

Bracbystola magna 15 

Brauer, F 36- 

British Bee-keepers' Association 140 

Brooks, J. G 89- 

Brown county 92, 97 

Bruner, Lawrence 9, 39 

Brunswig, A. J 18- 

Butler county 94 

Butts, M. A 92 

c. 

Caloptenus diff erentialis 62 

Calvert, G. L 16, 49- 

Campbell soil culture 49 

Can. Ent., Vol. XXIV 33 

Capital, Topeka 7 

Carbolic acid, remedy for foul-brood 140, 141 

Carolina locust 10 , 17 , 19 

Carniolan bees 69, 72 

' ' characteristics of 69 

Cary, Mrs. L. A 89 

Case, Judge 18 

Cat-bird 30 

Cellar wintering of bees 133, 134 

Chaff hives 134, 135 

Cheshire.F.R 72, 74, 76, 77, 139 

Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railway 1 

Chinch-bug 5 

Cimbex americana 34 

Circulatory system of Differential Locust 45 

Close of the honey season. 131, 133 

Cloud county 98- 

Coal-oil, its use in killing locusts 57 

Coburn,F. D 11, 85 

Coccyzus americanus 30' 

Coffey county 97 

Colony of bees ready for shipment 135 

' ' social economy of 72 , 102 

Colorado State Bee-keepers' Association 99 

Comb, building 79 

' ' foundation, frames of 124 , 125 

Combs, reversing 131 

Conry, T. J : 66, 94 

Coquillett, D. W 38 

Corn-root worm 5 

Cowley county 98- 

Cress, P. C 91 

Crocker, J. F 95 

Crow blackbird 30 

Cyprian bees 69, 72 

' ' characteristics of 71 

Cyrtacanthacris differentialis 6* 

D. 

Daniels, A. L 98 

Darwin on self-fertilization of flowers 83 

Davison, E 97 

Decatur county 18. 



INDEX. 147 

Differential (or yellow) Locust 31, 32, 39, 60 

Life-history of 20- 28 

embryology 20, 21 

manner of oviposition 21- 23 

number of eggs in pod of 23 

where eggs are laid 23- 25 

description of egg-pod 25 

last molt 25- 27 

habits 28 

length of flight 29 

habitat 29 

Natural enemies 29 

vertebrate 29, 30 

birds 29, 30 

cats 30 

blacksnakes 30 

invertebrate 31- 38 

locust mite 31 

beetles, predaceous 31 

flies, parasitic 31- 37 

' ' robber 37 

locust fungus 15, 37, 38 

Methods of prevention 51- 55 

Methods of destruction 55- 60 

Digestive system of Melanoplus differentialis 44 

' ' of honey-bee 76 

Diptera, parasitic 31- 37 

Disking alfalfa, remedy for grasshoppers 51-53, 61 

' ' cause of increase in yield 52 

Diseases of bees 139 , 140 

Diseases of grasshoppers 15, 37, 38 

Dissosteira Carolina 10, 17, 19 

" longipennis 17, 23 

Dividing bees for increase 137 

Douglas, Robert 92 

Drone bee, position in social economy of the hive 72 

cells 80 

Duff, A. H 67, 73, 102-138 

Dyer, A. C 11 

E. 

Edwards county 5, 6, 11, 12, 18, 19, 23, 28, 38, 51, 53, 59, 90 

Edwards, R. E 11 

Eggs of Differential Locust, number in pod 23 

Egyptian bees 69 

Emery, J. P 97 

Empusa grilli 14, 15, 37 

Enemies of bees 141 

Erax cinerascens 37 

Extractor, the honey 116, 117 

Extracting honey, methods of 118 

F. 

Feeding bees, methods of 125 , 126 

Fehling method in honey analysis 79 

Fertilization of the alfalfa blossom 81 

method of 82 

Finney county 5, 13, 94, 95, 97, 98 

Food for bees 105, 133 

Formic acid 75, 80 

Ford.Thos.H 1, 14, 55, 57, 59 

Ford county 5, 13, 51, 52, 53, 55 

Foul-brood ( Bacillus alvei) 139-141 

Foundation fastener, the Parker Ill 

Foundation comb, its advantages 112 



148 INDEX. 

Frames of comb foundation 124-125 

Franklin, E.C 67, 77, 79 

Frazer, D.J 93 

Fulton, W. D .v 56, 94 

G. 

Galeoscoptes carolinensis 39 

Galleria mellonella 141 

German bee 68 

" " characteristics 69' 

Girard, M. B 89 

Goodland Republican 16 

Gray county 97 

Great crested fly-catcher 30 

Greeley county 6, 15, 30 

H. 

Hambleton, C. S 13 

Hamilton county 5, 6, 14, 15, 28, 37, 57, 59, 98 

Hawn, Laurens 95 

Handling bees 129, 130 

Hetzel, Mrs. M. D 90 

Hildebrand on self fertilization of flowers 82 

Hill, H. M 89 

Hive yields 99 

Hives, construction 109-1H) 

' ' putting together 122 

' ' the complete 114-116 

Hiving swarms 119, 120 

Hoffman, Joseph e 98 

Hoffmeister, Ed ' 92 

Holsinger, Frank 30 

Honey season 107 

" closeof 131-133 

' ' extractor 116, 117 

' ' methods of extracting 118, 119 

' ' chemical analysis 79 

11 alfalfa and melon bloom 77 

" alfalfa 77, 79 

basswood 77, 79 

' ' knotweed 77, 79 

' ' sweet clover 77 , 79 

' ' white clover 77 , 79 

' ' cells 79 

" producing plants of Kansas, principal 142. 143 

Hopper-dozer, use of.. 12, 60 

" " less efficient on cloudy days 28 

' ' ability to capture full-fledged differential locusts 29 

" " article on construction, uses, success attending experiments 55- 60 

Hough, Garry de N 11, 32, 33, 34 

House apiaries 126, 128 

Huber, Francois 74 

Hughes, J. F 88 

Humphrey, C. H 1, 14 

Hunter, W. D 11 

Hymenoptera, parasitic 33 

I. 

Introducing queens 136 

Italian bees 69, 72 

J. 

Jefferson county P2 

Jefferson, Thomas 69 

Jewell county 91 



INDEX. 141) 

Jones, D. B 91 

Jones, W. D 92 

Journals relating to apiculture 144 

Judd, S. D 30 

K. 

Kansas City Star 6 

Kansas Farmer 67, 144 

Kansas state board of agriculture 85 

Kansas, seventh in list of states visited by Rocky Mountain Locust 9 

Kansas University Quarterly 37 

Katydid 30 

L. 

La Bar, John W 97 

Langstroth, L. L 81 

Law concerning destruction of grasshoppers 61 , 62 

Leavenworth county 95 

Lesser Migratory Locust— see Melanoplus atlanis. 

Linn county 89, 97 

Lizards preying on bees 37 

Logan county 16 

Long.D.A 17, 18, 49 

Longed- winged Locust— see Dissostiera longipennis. 

Loy, General Foreman 17 

Lubber grasshopper— see Brachystola magna. 

Lyon county 88, 98 

M. 

Maclellan, Engineer 17 

Marion county 93 , 94 

Mc Allaster, B. A 48, 49» 

McClung, C. E 20* 

McGrew, S. B 97 

McGugin, H. H 91> 

McPherson county 88, 9< 

Means of preventing undue increase of Melanoplus differentialis 51- 53 

Means of destruction of Melanoplus differentialis 55- 60 

Measure of prevention against grasshoppers 48 

Melanerpes ery throcephalus 30 

Melanoplus atlanis 11, 19, 38 

" bivitattus 11, 13, 19, 27 

differentialis 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 23, 25, 27, 32, 33, 31, 39, 63 

bibliography of 62 

egg, description of 20, 21 

egg-pods, number of in pod 23 

" where laid 21, 23 

" how destroyed 51, 53 

life-history, anatomy, and habits — see Differential Locust. 

technical description 63 

femur-rubrum 19, 38 

packardi 19 

spretus 9, 11, 19, 3s 

Meridian, 100th 6 

Methods of feeding bees 105 

Miami county 89 

Mice disturbing the hives 141 

Miller, Wm 65, 88 

Miller, F. H 93 

Missouri Pacific railway 1 

Mitchell county 89, 91 

Momyer, C. J 15, 49 

Muller, Herman 81, 85 

Myiarchus crinitus 30 



150 INDEX. 

N. 

National Bee-keepers' Association 77 , 81 

Neosho county 97 

Nervous system of Melanoplus differentialis 47 

Newell, J. C 18 

Noe, D. P 97 

Norton county 18, 92 , 96 

O. 

(Edipodina? 10 

Observations by apiarists 88, 98 

Olston. Oley 97 

Opening hives and handling the bees 129, 130 

Osage county 92 

Osborn, H 11 

Ottawa county 92 

P. 

Packard, A. S 9 

Packages, best for retailing honey 119 

Palestine bees 69 

Paris green, use of, against locusts 60 

Parker comb foundation fastener Ill 

Pezotettix differentialis — 63 

Phenol, remedy for foul-brood 140, 141 

Phillips county 89, 92, 98 

Plants, honey and pollen producing, of Kansas 142 , 143 

Pollination of alfalfa blossom by bee 81 

Prairie-chickens, grasshoppers as food of 30 

Proceedings of National Museum, vol. xx 63 

Propolis 74 

' ' as receptacle for bee-moth's eggs 141 

Q. 

Quails, grasshoppers as food of 31 

Queen bee, development and position in economy of hive 72 

" rearing 72, 122 

" " with bad wings 121 

" " introducing into hi ve 136 

" " age to remove 132 

Queen-cells 80, 122, 123 

Queenless bees, actions of 132 

Queen rearing, artificial 122, 123 

' ' difficulties, out of season 124 

Quiscalus versicolor 30 

R. 

Rauchfuss, Frank 99, 1C0 

Record of colony feeding almost exclusively on alfalfa 100, 101 

Red-eyed vireo 30 

Red-headed woodpecker 30 

Red-legged Locust — see Melanoplus femur-rubum. 

Red locust mite 31 , 33, 34 

Report of United States Department of Agriculture, 1885 38 

" United States Entomological Commission, First 38 

' ' Entomologist to Nebraska State Board of Agriculture, 1896. 39 

Reproductive system of Melanoplus differentialis 47 

Respiratory system of Melanoplus differentialis 46 

Reversing the comb 131 

Riley,C.V 9, 29, 31, 38 

Rock Island railway 1 . 17 

Rocky Mountain Locust— see Melanoplus spretus. 

Rooks county 89 

Royal jelly 74 



INDEX. 151 

s. 

Saline county 88 

Sarcophaga cimbicis 12, 33 

Sarcophaga hunteri 33, 34, 37 

Sarcophagidse 32, 33 

Sarcophagee 36 

Scudder, S. H 29, 63 

Section-holder super 113, 114 

Section boxes 114 

Sherman county 16, 18 

Shipping crates for honey 114, 115 

Silsby , John H 7 

Simmons, T. W 17 

Smart, J.H 12, 13, 15, 51, 52, 53, 59 

Smith, R. W 92 

Snodgrass, R. L 94 

Snow, F. H 1, 5, n, 30 

Snowy tree-cricket 30 

Spraying with Paris green 60 

Spring management of bees 103 

Spiders 14 

Statutes of Kansas 61 

Steere, Solon 91 

Stevens, W. C xi 

Stein, Herr Paul 36 

Stilson, L. D 77 

Stimulative feeding of bees 105 

Sting of the bee 80 

' ' structure and use 80 

' ' remedies 81 

Straining honey 119 

Super for holding sections 112 

Sutton, J. W 98 

Summary, relations existing between alfalfa and grasshoppers, and methods of prevention 

of loss from grasshoppers 60, 61 

Swarming of bees 108, 120 

' ' how prevented 108 

Swarms, how hived 119 

Swayze, J. C 67, 77, 79 

Swink, G. D 77 

Swoyer, Jacob 92 

Syrian bees 09 

T. 

Table showing influence of bees on alfalfa seed 84 

' ' chemical analysis of honey 79 

" alfalfa acreage, stands of bees, pounds of honey 86, 87 

Tachinidae , 32 , 37 

Teaford, Samuel 96 

Technical description of Melanoplus differentialis 63, 64 

Tephromyia 34, 36 

affinis 36, 37 

grisea 36, 37 

hunteri 36, 37 

lineata 36, 37 

obsoleta 36, 37 

Thayer, Albert F 7 

Thomas, C 29 

Thomas county 16 

Toads 141 

Townsend, C. H. T 31, 33, 34 

Trombidium locustarum 31 

Try xalinae 10 



152 INDEX. 

"T super," the 112 

Two-striped Locust — see Melanoplus bivitattis. 

Tunisian bees 69 

u. 

Union Pacific railway 1, 16, 49 

United States Department of Agriculture 71 

Bulletin No. 9 30 

V. 

Vireo olivaceus 30 

Vivarium, observations on locusts in 23 

w. 

Walker, Wm 16, 49 

Wallace county 6, 16 

Wasps 141 

Watson, Supt.G.W 1, 11, 53 

Wax 75, 117 

' ' moth, the 141 

Weber, Wm 23, 59 

Weir, John 94 

Western cricket 30 

" Fruit Grower 30 

Whitford, L. M 77 

Whitcomb, E 77 

White Woman creek 15 

Williston, S. W 1, 32, 31, 37 

Wilson county 92 

Wing, J. H 66, 77, 98 

Winter care of bees 137 

Wintering, cellar 133, 134 

' ' outdoor 134 

Worker bee, function and position in the social economy of the hive 72 

cells 80 

Y. 

Year among the bees, One 102 

Yellow-billed cuckoo 30 

Yellow grasshopper 31 , 60 

Yields of first and second crop of alfalfa on disked land 53 

Young, D.F 98 

Yoxall, George 89 



CORRIGENDA. 



The foot note bearing afon page 11 should appear as a foot-note on page 12, 
and should refer to Sarcophaga sp., in line 7. 

The line at the bottom of page 15 should be removed, and should appear as 
the third line from the bottom of page 16. 

Under figure 14, page 41, end of second line, "menl" should be men-, and at 
end of third line "labia-" should be labial. 

After each of the figures in Part II, from figure 8 to 29, inclusive, should ap- 
pear the word " (Original.)" 



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